Controversies - Scientific Status Flashcards
What is the definition of science
“The systematic study of the nature and behaviour of material and physical universe, based on observation, experiment, and measurement, and the the formulation of laws to describe these facts in general terms”
What are the features of science
- Empiricism
- Objectivity
- Theory/hypothesis testing
- control
- replicability
- falsifiability
- predictability
- paradigm
What is empiricism
- empirical facts are physical facts that are backed up with physical evidence which have been measured in an objective way
- it doesn’t rely on arguments, ideas and beliefs
- instead it relies on directly observed information from methods such as: objective observation, experimentation, and measurement of behaviour
What is objectivity
- objectivity refers to the absence of bias
- the researcher should remain unbiased and not influence the results with their thoughts feelings and opinions
- to increase objectivity, nothing should be open to interpretation and bias
- e.g.: standardised procedures, fully operationalised variables, double blind design, objective scientific measuring devices, peer review
- objectivity is essential for validity
What is theory/hypothesis testing
- there’s a distinct procedure that research should follow in order to be scientific, called the ‘hypothetico deductive model’
1) observation of naturalistic behaviour irl
2) research question is developed
3) which forms a hypothesis
4) hypothesis is tested empirically and results establish whether we accept or reject it
5) if accepted then conclusions can be made, a theories can be developed
6) this may end up producing more questions and forming more hypothesises to be tested
What is control
- best done in a laboratory setting where an IV can be controlled/manipulated and a DV is measured, whilst extraneous variables are controlled to prevent confounding the results
- controlled observations are also carried out in which variables are systematically tested with objective measurement in the form of predetermined behavioural categories using a standardised sampling method such as time or event sampling
- only causal relationships can be demonstrated with control, so its an important element of scientific status
What is replicability
- the confidence in research findings that if it were replicated in exactly the same way, the results would be consistent
- replication helps guard against scientific fraud and enables psychologists to check whether results were just a one-off or not
- if results are consistent = results are accurate beyond reasonable doubt
- knowing results are reliable is vital in establishing theories
What is falsifiability
- developed by Karl Popper (1935) it is the concept of testing scientific theories by trying to disprove them
- he proposed that no matter how many positive validations of a science theory there are, it doesn’t prove it is undeniably true
- one example of falsification is enough to render a theory untrue
- so psychological theory’s should be falsifiable in order to be a scientific theory, i.e. could be proved false…but haven’s yet
What is predictability
- one of the aims of science is to develop generalisable laws in order to make predictions about future events or behaviours
- this gives us the opportunity of control or prevention
What is a paradigm
- Thomas Kuhn (1962) developed the idea of a paradigm: a general theory or law that’s accepted by the majority of scientists in a particular field of study
- it’s a set of assumptions which govern the subject, providing the basic assumptions, key concepts and methodology
- a paradigm isn’t fixed and as more hypotheses are tested, results won’t fit the paradigm causing it to be rejected and replaced with a new paradigm (this process is called a paradigm shift)
- there are 3 distinct stages in the development of science
- pre-science: no paradigm exists and it has a theoretical approach
- normal science: generally accepted paradigm that can account for all phenomena related to the subject and explain findings.
- revolutionary science: when paradigm shifts have occurred, and a new one has replaced the old
Write out the paragraph you would raise when answering: ‘The changing nature of science has made it difficult to establish the scientific status of psychology.’ To what extent do you agree with this statement? Justify your answer using psychological knowledge. [25 marks]
P: The notion of falsifiability, introduced by Karl Popper, is a central criterion for distinguishing science from non-science. Many psychological theories, particularly those in the psychodynamic approach, have been criticized for their lack of falsifiability.
E: Freud’s theories on the unconscious mind, for instance, propose concepts such as the id, ego, and superego, which are difficult to measure empirically. Freud’s case studies, such as that of Little Hans where Freud claimed that the phobia of horses stemmed from the boy displacing his fear of his father from his Oedipus complex onto horses, are highly subjective and cannot be replicated due to their reliance on unique individual circumstances.
T: The lack of control in such studies undermines their scientific credibility, as they fail to meet the criteria of replicability and objectivity. This has led to the psychodynamic approach being criticized as pseudoscientific despite its significant influence on psychology’s development as a discipline.
P: In contrast, later approaches, such as behaviorism, prioritized control and objectivity, aligning more closely with scientific principles.
E: For example, Watson and Rayner’s (1920) controlled observation of Little Albert demonstrated how fear responses could be conditioned in a laboratory setting. By pairing a neutral stimulus (a white rat) with a loud noise, they successfully induced a fear response in the child. The experiment was conducted under controlled conditions, such as introducing the control conditioning of allowing Albert to play with the wooden blocks in order to combat any extraneous variables, allows for replicability and the collection of measurable data.
T: This illustrates how psychology, through the adoption of the scientific method, began to establish itself as a scientific discipline.
P: Another challenge arises from Thomas Kuhn’s concept of paradigms. Kuhn argued that sciences progress through paradigm shifts, wherein a dominant theory guides research until it is replaced by a new one. Psychology, with its multiple competing approaches—biological, cognitive, behavioral, psychodynamic, and humanistic—lacks a single unifying paradigm.
E: For example, while the biological approach emphasizes the role of genetics and neurochemistry in behavior, the cognitive approach focuses on cognitive factors such as schemas or cognitive distortions, which are harder to measure scientifically.
T: This fragmentation contrasts with disciplines like physics or chemistry, where foundational theories (e.g., Newtonian mechanics) unify the field. The absence of a consensus framework in psychology complicates its classification as a science under Kuhn’s criteria.
P: Furthermore, the rise of social psychology criticisms in the late 20th century has questioned the objectivity of science itself. Social psychology argues that all knowledge, including scientific knowledge, is influenced by social and cultural factors. This perspective is particularly relevant to psychology, which studies complex, context-dependent human behavior.
E: For instance, Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, which proposed a universal sequence of moral reasoning stages, has been critiqued by Carol Gilligan for its male-centric bias. Gilligan argued that Kohlberg’s research, based primarily on male participants, overlooked the relational and care-oriented perspectives often observed in women’s moral reasoning.
T: This highlights how cultural and gender biases can influence psychological research and limit the generalisability of findings, challenging psychology’s objectivity as it is unable to conduct research that is free from objectivity and bias.
P: Despite these challenges, psychology has made significant strides in adopting scientific methods, particularly in areas like cognitive and biological psychology. The development of technologies such as fMRI and PET scans has allowed researchers to study brain activity with precision, providing empirical support for theories of cognition and behavior.
E: For example, Maguire et al.’s (2000) study of London taxi drivers used MRI technology to demonstrate that extensive spatial navigation experience was associated with increased grey matter volume in the hippocampus. This finding not only provided evidence for brain plasticity but also showcased the scientific rigor possible in psychological research. Similarly, Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) research on eyewitness testimony used controlled experiments to investigate how leading questions influence memory. Participants watched videos of car accidents and were asked questions with varying verb intensities (e.g., “smashed” versus “bumped”).
T: The scientific nature of these studies allowed important data to be produced that can be trusted in application, such as redefining how eyewitness testimonies are considered in legal trials in order to prevent false EWT that cause situations such as what happened to Ronald Cotton
Write out the paragraph you would raise when answering: “There are many drawbacks to psychology being a science” With reference to this quote, assess the scientific status of psychology. [25]
P: The advantage is that without the scientific credibility of studies, psychology’s insights may never be taken seriously, perpetuating and prolonging issues in society
E: Loftus and Palmer (1974) used a highly controlled experiment on eyewitness testimony, manipulating the phrasing of questions (e.g., “smashed” versus “hit”) to measure their impact on memory recall.
E: By employing standardized procedures and gathering empirical data, Loftus and Palmer demonstrated how memory is reconstructive and susceptible to suggestion, producing findings that are reproducible and reliable due to the experiment’s scientific rigor.
T: This researched raised the issues of eyewitness accounts, leading to reforms in courtroom procedures, such as cautioning juries about the limitations of memory and informing how police interview victims to avoid leading questions. This is important as without the scientific credibility of Loftus and Palmer’s insights into memory, their findings might not have been taken seriously by the justice system, perpetuating wrongful convictions as we know has happened
P: Advantages of using non-scientific methods
E: Freud’s psychodynamic theory relies on subjective methods like dream analysis to explore unconscious processes and works using subjective and unfalsifiable assumptions about human behaviours such as the tripartite personality.
E: Non-scientific methods can offer unique insights into human experiences that are difficult to quantify or measure objectively. For example, Freud’s work, while lacking empirical validation, provided a framework for understanding the influence of childhood experiences on adult behavior. Non-scientific methods allow researchers to address subjective and complex aspects of human behavior, such as emotions, motivations, and personal meaning, which are often overlooked by purely scientific approaches.
T: Whilst Critics argue that subjective methods lack reliability and are prone to researcher bias, undermining psychology’s credibility as a science, their value lies in complementing scientific approaches by offering a holistic understanding of human behavior. For example, qualitative methods like case studies can explore the lived experiences of individuals in depth, providing rich data that quantitative methods may miss. Therefore psychology may not want scientific status as it is impossible to measure absolutely everything about human behaviour in such a way
P: psychology wants to be a science as only interventions backed by reliable data are likely to receive widespread support and funding.
E: Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), grounded in cognitive psychology, is an evidence-based treatment for mental health conditions like depression and schizophrenia. CBT is supported by scientific studies, such as Beck’s work on the cognitive triad, which relied on experiments that produced valid and reliable data.
E: The ability to generate reliable data through experiments allows psychologists to create evidence-based treatments, which governments and healthcare systems can fund with confidence. Such as CBT which is widely available in public healthcare systems due to its proven efficacy.
T: This demonstrates the societal value of psychology as a science, as it directly improves individuals’ quality of life and reduces the economic burden of untreated mental health conditions.
P: Ethical guidelines protect participants’ rights and safety
E: Milgram’s obedience study (1963) revealed groundbreaking insights into the power of authority, but it faced severe ethical criticism. Participants were deceived into believing they were delivering painful electric shocks to another person, causing significant emotional distress.
E: Today, the replication of Milgram’s study in its original form would be impossible due to the strict ethical guidelines that govern psychological research. The recognition of psychology as a scientific discipline has led to the establishment of ethical standards, such as the need for informed consent, debriefing, and minimizing harm to participants. These safeguards protect participants’ rights and ensure that researchers prioritize their well-being over the pursuit of knowledge. For example, modern replications of Milgram’s work use virtual simulations or alternative methodologies that prevent distress while still exploring obedience.
T: The scientific status of psychology requires adherence to professional ethical codes, such as those outlined by the British Psychological Society (BPS) or the American Psychological Association (APA), ensuring that research remains humane and socially responsible. If psychology didn’t adhere to these buildings they would lose their scientific status, therefore by having psychology as a science it prevents unethical research from being conducted.
