Controversies - Non-human Animals Flashcards
Write the paragraphs you would use to answer: “The BPS guidelines for psychologists working with animals provide the best protection for animals against pain and suffering” With reference to this quote, assess the ethical issues raised by the use of non-human animals in psychology [25].
P: One issue with the BPS guidelines for animal research is that they are not legally binding and often rely on subjective interpretations.
E: For instance, Kilkenny et al. (2009) analyzed 271 studies involving animals and found significant inconsistencies in how researchers adhered to the principles of ethical research, such as accurately reporting the number of animals used. Many studies reported different numbers of animals in the method and results sections, suggesting poor design and adherence to the guidelines. This indicates that subjective terms in the guidelines, such as “appropriate” or “minimize,” leave room for researchers to interpret them in ways that could compromise animal welfare. Without legal enforcement, researchers may bypass these ethical recommendations, especially if they prioritize scientific outcomes over animal welfare.
T: Therefore, while the guidelines aim to protect animals, their non-binding nature can render them ineffective, ultimately undermining public trust in psychological research and leaving animals vulnerable to unnecessary suffering.
P: The BPS guidelines support public trust in psychological research by ensuring that ethical practices are upheld, which is crucial for maintaining the field’s credibility and securing funding. The importance of animal research in advancing psychology is exemplified by Pavlov’s work with dogs.
E: Pavlov conditioned dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell, demonstrating classical conditioning. This research laid the foundation for behaviorism, a major school of thought in psychology, and informed treatments like aversion therapy, which have significantly improved the lives of individuals struggling with addictions and other behavioral disorders. The ethical guidelines ensure that such groundbreaking research can be conducted responsibly, promoting the image of psychology as a humane and socially beneficial field.
T: Therefore, these guidelines not only protect animal welfare but also enhance the reputation of psychology, ensuring its continued growth and positive impact on society.
P: One significant criticism of the BPS guidelines is that they may legitimize the suffering of animals by framing it as a necessary part of scientific progress.
E: Dunayer (2002) argues that animal legislation simply sets the standard for the imprisonment, enslavement, hurting and killing of animals. He goes on to argue that such laws are similar to the laws that dealt with the treatment of black slaves in America. Dunayer argues that just because something is legal, it doesn’t make it right.. This perspective is particularly relevant when considering studies like Harlow’s research on attachment. Harlow subjected monkeys to extreme isolation and even used devices such as the “rape rack” to forcibly breed them, causing severe emotional and physical distress to the animals. The suffering endured by the monkeys is a stark example of the ethical violations that can occur under the guise of advancing science.
T: Thereofore by permitting such research, the guidelines risk normalizing the exploitation of animals, which raises questions about the moral foundations of psychological research and whether the benefits to humans can ever justify the harm inflicted on animals.
P: In contrast to concerns about legitimizing suffering, the BPS guidelines promote ethical innovation by adhering to the principles of the 3Rs: Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement. Replacement, in particular, encourages researchers to find alternatives to using animals where possible.
E: For example, if studies like Olds and Milner’s research on brain reward centers were conducted today, researchers might use brain organoids (lab-grown neural tissue) or alternative reward mechanisms, such as food-based reinforcements, to avoid surgically implanting electrodes into rats’ brains. This approach reduces the need for invasive procedures, improving animal welfare while still allowing valuable insights into neuroscience.
T: Therefore by prioritizing such humane methods, the guidelines ensure that animal suffering is minimized and replaced with modern alternatives wherever possible. This reflects the evolving ethical standards in psychology, ensuring that scientific progress does not come at the expense of unnecessary animal suffering
Write the paragraphs you would use to answer: “the benefits of animal studies don’t justify the ethical costs to the animals in them.” What is your opinion on this quote? Using your knowledge of psychology, justify your answer [25]
P: The ethical implications of animal research have long been a subject of debate within psychology. Ethological studies, which involve observing animals in their natural habitats, aim to minimize human interference. However, even such observational methods can have significant ethical consequences.
E: Dian Fossey’s (1983) extensive fieldwork with mountain gorillas in Rwanda exemplifies this. Over 18 years, Fossey habituated gorillas to her presence, allowing her to document their behaviors, diets, vocalizations, and social structures. While her research provided invaluable insights into gorilla behavior, it also had unintended ethical costs. The habituation process made gorillas more vulnerable to poaching, as they became less wary of humans. This increased human-animal interaction potentially disrupted their natural behaviors, and destroyed their habitats.
T: Therefore, despite the scientific benefits of Fossey’s work, the ethical costs to the gorillas were substantial, suggesting that in this case, the benefits did not justify the ethical costs.
COUNTER: However, it’s important to note that Fossey was acutely aware of these ethical dilemmas and took active measures to protect the gorillas from poachers, highlighting the complex balance researchers must navigate between scientific inquiry and ethical responsibility.
P: In contemporary research, ethical guidelines have evolved to address such concerns, allowing for the continuation of valuable studies while minimizing harm to animals.
E: The British Psychological Society’s (BPS) “Guidelines for Psychologists Working with Animals” (2020) emphasize the importance of minimizing interference with animals in fieldwork. Researchers are advised to take precautions to reduce disruption to individual animals, populations, and ecosystems. This includes obtaining specific licenses when necessary and considering the potential long-term consequences of their presence and activities.
T: Therefore by adhering to these guidelines, modern researchers can conduct field studies that are both ethically sound and scientifically valuable.
COUNTER: However, challenges remain in fully implementing these guidelines across diverse research settings, and continuous evaluation is necessary to ensure ethical standards are upheld.
P: Comparative psychology often involves studying animals in controlled environments, which can lead to ethical concerns regarding the unnatural and stressful conditions imposed on the subjects.
E: Harry Harlow’s (1959) experiments with infant rhesus monkeys are a notable example. Harlow separated newborn monkeys from their mothers and provided them with surrogate mothers made of wire or cloth. The monkeys showed a preference for the cloth-covered surrogates, highlighting the importance of contact comfort in attachment. However, these monkeys later exhibited severe social and emotional deficits, including aggression and poor parenting behaviors.
T: This research significantly advanced our understanding of attachment but at a considerable ethical cost to the animals involved.
COUNTER: Today, such studies would likely be prohibited under the BPS guidelines, which advocate for the Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement (3Rs) principles in animal research. This suggests that while past research methods were ethically problematic, current guidelines aim to prevent such ethical breaches, indicating that animal research can be conducted responsibly. Nonetheless, the effectiveness of these guidelines depends on rigorous enforcement and the development of alternative methods that can replace animal use in research.
P: Despite ethical concerns, animal studies have yielded significant scientific benefits that have improved human lives.
E: B.F. Skinner’s research with rats and pigeons on operant conditioning and shaping has had profound applications. His experiments demonstrated how behavior could be modified through reinforcement, leading to practical applications in various fields. For instance, operant conditioning principles have been applied in educational settings to enhance classroom management and learning outcomes. Techniques such as token economies, derived from Skinner’s work, are used to reinforce positive behaviors in students. Additionally, shaping procedures have been employed in therapeutic contexts, such as in behavior modification programs for individuals with autism, helping them acquire new skills through gradual reinforcement.
T: Therefore if comparative psychology studies had been disallowed, these valuable insights and applications might not have been realized.
Write the paragraphs you would use to answer: “One of the best uses for animals in psychology is not in research it’s in the use of animals as a therapeutic device.” With reference to this quote, assess the use of non-human animals in psychology. [25]
P: One of the best uses of non-human animals in psychology is their ability to address loneliness and improve social interactions, particularly in vulnerable populations such as children with autism.
E: Maggie O’Haire (2013) reviewed 14 clinical trials that investigated the effects of animal-assisted therapy (AAT) on children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Different animals, primarily dogs and horses, were used in these studies, which measured 30 outcome variables. Across the studies, AAT led to “statistically significant” improvements in 27 of the 30 outcomes, including increased social interaction, better communication, and reduced stress.
T: This evidence demonstrates the efficacy of AAT in improving key areas of functioning for individuals with ASD. By fostering social bonds, these animals play an invaluable therapeutic role, especially for those who struggle with interpersonal connections. This is a clear strength of using animals as therapeutic devices, as they offer unique benefits that cannot easily be replicated.
F: This strength is important because social isolation and loneliness are major public health concerns with significant implications for mental health. Animals, being non-judgmental and empathetic, provide a bridge for individuals to develop meaningful relationships, making their use in therapy a powerful tool in addressing these widespread issues.
P: While there is evidence supporting the use of animals in therapy, many studies suffer from methodological flaws and biases, which call into question the validity of their conclusions.
E: Anestis et al. (2014) reviewed 14 studies on equine therapy and highlighted several critical issues, including small sample sizes, lack of control groups, and failure to use random assignment. They also raised concerns about the “file drawer effect,” where studies with positive results are more likely to be published, creating a skewed perception of effectiveness.
Therefore: These flaws undermine the credibility of the evidence supporting animal-assisted therapy, suggesting that some benefits attributed to AAT may be overstated. As a result, relying on such studies to justify the therapeutic use of animals could be misleading. This is a significant weakness, as it diminishes the scientific rigor of this field and raises ethical concerns about the potential harm to animals if the benefits to humans are not as substantial as claimed.
F: This weakness is crucial because ethical considerations must take precedence. If the therapeutic benefits are exaggerated or unreliable, subjecting animals to potentially stressful situations may be unjustifiable. This highlights the need for more rigorous and ethically sound research in this area.
P: Another compelling argument for the use of animals in therapy is their ability to reduce stress and improve physical health, which has been demonstrated in various populations.
E: Karen Allen (2003) found that the presence of pets significantly reduced blood pressure in children reading aloud and buffered elderly individuals from life stressors, leading to a reduction in cardiovascular risk. These benefits were observed in both individuals with normal blood pressure and those with hypertension.
T: This evidence underscores the unique therapeutic value of animals in reducing both psychological and physical stress, which is a critical strength of using them in therapy. The health benefits, particularly the reduction in cardiovascular risk, are too significant to ignore and provide a strong justification for their continued use.
F: This strength is important because stress-related illnesses, such as heart disease, are among the leading causes of mortality worldwide. Animals not only offer emotional support but also contribute to tangible health improvements, making their role in therapy an indispensable tool in preventive healthcare.
P: Despite the benefits of using animals in therapy, alternatives such as robotic animals may provide similar therapeutic effects without the ethical concerns associated with using live animals.
E: Petersen et al. (2017) studied the use of the PARO therapeutic robot, designed to mimic the appearance and behavior of a baby seal, in dementia patients. Over 12 weeks, participants in the PARO group showed decreased stress and anxiety, as well as reduced reliance on psychoactive and pain medications. These results were comparable to those seen in studies involving real animals.
T: This suggests that robotic animals can provide many of the same benefits as live animals while eliminating concerns about animal welfare. The use of robotic substitutes could address the ethical and logistical challenges of AAT while still offering effective therapeutic outcomes.
F: This alternative is important because it highlights the potential for innovation in therapeutic interventions. As technology advances, robotic animals could become more accessible and customizable, expanding the reach of therapy to populations who may not have access to live animals or who may prefer alternatives for cultural or personal reasons.
Write the paragraphs you would use to answer: “Speciesism in psychological research is never justified.” With reference to this quote, assess the ethical issues raised by the use of non-human animals in psychology. [25]
P: One could argue that speciesism in psychological research is never justified because it perpetuates a form of moral discrimination that disregards the inherent value of animals’ lives. This aligns with the absolutist perspective of Regan (1984), who asserted that animals possess inherent rights to be treated with respect and dignity, regardless of potential benefits to humans.
E: Regan’s absolutist stance mirrors ethical frameworks that reject any form of exploitation based on arbitrary distinctions, such as species. For example, if all animals have a right to life and freedom from harm, then subjecting them to experiments solely for human gain is ethically indefensible. Moreover, the Treaty of Lisbon (2009) officially recognized animals as sentient beings, capable of feeling pain and suffering.
T: These absolutist arguments reinforce the idea that speciesism is an unethical bias, as it dismisses the capacity of animals to suffer, despite evidence of their sentience. From this perspective, every instance of animal experimentation is ethically unjustifiable, making it a profound weakness of speciesist reasoning.
F: This is important because ethical absolutism challenges society to re-evaluate its priorities and address the moral inconsistency of protecting human rights while neglecting the suffering of sentient non-human beings. Absolutist views push us toward developing alternative methods to achieve psychological insights without causing harm to animals
P: A utilitarian approach could justify speciesism in psychological research, arguing that the potential benefits to the majority outweigh the ethical costs to animals. Singer (1975) proposed that decisions should aim to maximize the greatest good for the greatest number, making animal research defensible if it leads to substantial human benefits.
E: For instance, Olds and Milner’s research into the mesolimbic pathway in mice was groundbreaking. By implanting electrodes into the brain’s reward center, they discovered its critical role in addictive behaviors. This understanding has since led to the development of treatments such as varenicline, which targets this brain region to help individuals overcome addiction. While the mice in the experiment endured ethical costs, the long-term benefits of this research for millions of people struggling with addiction arguably outweigh the harm caused.
T: This example reinforces the utilitarian justification for speciesism, as it demonstrates how the controlled use of animals in research can lead to significant advancements that benefit society as a whole. While ethical concerns remain, the outcomes support the argument that speciesism can be justified when human welfare is prioritized.
F: This strength is vital in the field of psychology, as it allows for practical and ethical decision-making. It highlights the importance of carefully balancing the ethical costs to animals with the potential for life-changing discoveries that improve human lives.
P: A significant weakness of speciesism is the frequent failure of researchers to meet ethical standards in studies involving animals, raising questions about its justification. Poor research practices exacerbate the ethical costs of speciesism by causing unnecessary suffering to animals.
E: Kilkenny et al. (2009) analyzed 271 studies and found widespread issues, such as inconsistent reporting of the number of animals used, poorly designed methodologies, and a lack of adherence to the 3Rs (Replacement, Refinement, and Reduction). These flaws undermine the validity of research findings, suggesting that some experiments may result in unnecessary animal suffering without producing meaningful outcomes.
T: These findings highlight a major weakness of speciesism in psychological research, as they demonstrate that the suffering inflicted on animals is often disproportionate to the scientific benefits achieved. Without rigorous adherence to ethical standards, speciesism becomes increasingly difficult to defend.
F: This is important because it emphasizes the need for reform in animal research. Improving research quality and accountability could reduce unnecessary suffering and strengthen the justification for any future animal studies.
P: Another compelling argument against speciesism is the growing evidence of animal sentience, which challenges the notion that animals’ suffering is lesser or less significant than that of humans. Sentience implies that animals experience emotions, pain, and suffering, making their use in research ethically problematic.
E: Studies have shown that animals, particularly primates and mammals, exhibit signs of self-awareness and emotional complexity. For example, dolphins and great apes have passed mirror tests of self-recognition, indicating a level of consciousness. Moreover, the Treaty of Lisbon (2009) explicitly recognized all animals as sentient beings. Critics argue that even if animal sentience differs from human sentience, the suffering they endure is morally significant. This argument mirrors the critique of speciesism based on moral consistency: if humans lacking sentience (e.g., those in comas) are still afforded rights, then denying rights to sentient animals is inconsistent.
T: This evidence highlights a critical weakness in speciesist justifications for psychological research, as it demonstrates that animals’ capacity to suffer is being systematically undervalued. By failing to recognize the moral implications of sentience, speciesism perpetuates an unethical disregard for animal welfare.
F: This is significant because it challenges the ethical foundation of animal research and pushes for alternative methods. Recognizing animal sentience necessitates a shift in how psychological research is conducted, potentially accelerating the development of humane, non-animal research technologies.
