control ,punishment and victims

Question 1

crime prevention and control - situational crime prevention

Answer 1

Clarke
situational crime is a pre-emptive approach that relies not on improving society but on reducing opportunities for crime
3 features of measures aimed at doing this
1. directed at specific crimes
2. managing or altering the immediate environment
3. increasing effort to reduce the rewards of crime

based on rational choice theory - criminals are rationally weigh up the cost and benefits of a crime opportunity before committing

need to focus on the immediate situation

Most crime is opportunistic - need to reduce the opportunities

Question 2

crime prevention and control - situational crime prevention Ao2

Answer 2

Port authority bus terminal New York City was poorly designed and porvided opportunity for deviance
re-shaping the physicla environment reduced activity

Question 3

crime prevention and control - situational crime prevention Ao3

Answer 3

focuses on opportunistic petty street crime - ignores white collar

assumes criminals make rational calculations - unlikely in crimes of violence

Question 4

crime prevention and control - displacement

Answer 4

situational crime measures reduce crime, they displace it
displacement takes several forms:
target - choosing another victim
functional - committing another offence

Question 5

crime prevention and control - displacement Ao3

Answer 5

1/2 of suicide was the result of gassing.
swapped to less toxic gas, and overall suicide rates dropped to near 0 = no displacement

Question 6

crime prevention and control - environmental crime prevention

Answer 6

based on ‘broken windows’
stands for the various signs of disorder and lack of concern for others that are found in some neighbourhoods - includes graffiti.
levaing broken windows unprepared sends out a signal no one cares

in these neighbourhoods theres an absence of formal social control (police) and informal control (the community)
without action, the situation deteriorates = spiral of decline

police must adapt a zero tolernace policy - instead of merelt reacting to crime, must proactivelt tackle any signs of disorder

Question 7

crime prevention and control - environmental crime prevention AO2

Answer 7

zero tolerance policing in New York
‘clean car programme’ in the subway
cars were taken out of service immediately if they had any garfitti
= grafitti was removed from the subway

Question 8

crime prevention and control - environmental crime prevention Ao3

Answer 8

New York police department benefited from 7,000 extra officers

decline in the availability of crack cocaine

Question 9

crime prevention and control - social and community crime

Answer 9

emphasis on the potential offender and their social context
aim to remove the conditions that predispose the individual to crime
long term strategies that tackle the root cause e.g poverty

Question 10

crime prevention and control - social and community crime Ao2

Answer 10

perry pre-school project

for disadvantaged black children
experimental group of 3-4 year olds was offered a 2 year intellectual enrichment programme and received weekly home visits
by 40 they had significantly fewer lifetime arrests for violent crime

Question 11

crime prevention and control - AO3 for all of the approaches , whats missing?

Answer 11

they take for granted the nature and definition of crime
focus on low-level crimes and so disregard the environmental crimes and those of the powerful

Question 12

surveillance - foucalt: sovereign power

Answer 12

sovereign power = before 19thC when the monarch had the power over the people and their bodies. punishment was a spectacle - public execution

Question 13

surveillance - foucalt: disciplinary power

Answer 13

From the 19th century, a new system seeks to govern the body and mind through surveillance

It replaced sovereign power because surveillance is more efficient

Question 14

surveillance - foucalt: panopticon

Answer 14

example of disciplinary power

a design for a prison where each prisoner in his own cell, is visible to the guards from a central watchtower - but the guards aren’t visible to the prisoners

prisoners don’t know if they’re being watched so have to behave at all times = turns into self surveillance and self discipline

intensively monitoring

Question 15

surveillance - foucalt: dispersal of discipline

Answer 15

prison is just one example of disciplinary power - e.g mental asylums

non-prison social control practices form part of a carceral archipelago
a series of ‘prison islands’ where professionals exercise surveillance

disciplinary power as dispersed throughout society

Question 16

surveillance - foucalt ao3

Answer 16

The shift from sovereign power to disciplinary power is less clear than he suggests

he exaggerates the extent of control
Goffman - some inmates of prisons and mental hospitals are able to resist controls

CCTV is a form of panopticism - but not effective in preventing. caused displacement. feminists- its an extension of the male gaze

Question 17

surveillance theories : synoptic surveillance

Answer 17

Foucault’s account only tells half the story
the panopticism allows the few to monitor the many, the media allows the many to see the few

increase in surveillance from below = ‘synopticon’ where everyone watches everyone

means citizens are able to control the controllers, e.g filming the police for wrong doing

Question 18

surveillance theories : synoptic surveillance Ao2

Answer 18

powerful politicians fear the media’s urveillance of them may uncover damaging information about them = acts as a form of social control over their activities

Question 19

surveillance theories : synoptic surveillance AO3

Answer 19

occasional bottom-up scrutiny may be unable to reverse established hierarchies of surveillance
e.g under anti-terrorism laws police can confiscate camera of citizen journalists

Question 20

surveillance theories : surveillance assemblages

Answer 20

foucalt: surveillance involves the manipulation of physical bodies in confined space
surveillance technologies now involve the manipulation of virtual objects in cyberspace rather than physical bodies

trend towards combining different tecnologies = ‘surveillance assemblages’
e.g CCTV can be analysed using facial recognition software

Question 21

surveillance theories : acturial justice and risk management

Answer 21

a new technology of power is emerging. differs from Foucault in 3 ways
focuses on groups rather than individuals
not interested in rehabilitating
uses calculations of risk

aim is not to correct, treat or rehabilitate - seeks to predict and prevent future offending

The purpose of social sorting is to be able to categorise people so they can be treated differently according to the level of risk they pose

Question 22

surveillance theories : acturial justice and risk management AO2

Answer 22

airport security screening checks are based on known offender risk factors. young males may be spread higher than old females. anyone scoring above a given level is stopped and searched

Question 23

surveillance theories : acturial justice and risk management AO3

Answer 23

dnager of a self-fulfilling prophecy
profiles of typical offenders are compiled using official crime statistics.
If these show young black inner-city males are the group most likely to carry a weapon = the police are more likely to stop them, and = are stopped over other types of people = and they appear in statistics more

Question 24

punishment - 2 justifications for it

Answer 24

reduction - instrumental, a means to an end

retribution - expressive view of punishment

Question 25

justifications of punishment - reduction

Answer 25

deterrence - discourages future offending. making an example of them can be a deterrent to the public - e.g Thatcher's 'short, sharp, shock' regime in young offenders institutions rehabilitation - punishment used to change offenders so they no longer offend - includes education incapacitation - use of punishment to remove the offenders capacity to offend again

Question 26

justifications of punishment - retribution

Answer 26

'paying back' justification for crimes that have already been committed rather than preventing future crimes society is entitled to take its revenge

Question 27

functionalist (durkheim) perspective on punishment

Answer 27

The function is to uphold social solidarity and reinforce shared values punishment is expressive - e.g moral outrage 2 types of justice: retributive justice: in traditional society, solidarity is based on similarity. produces a strong collective conscience which, when offended, responds with passion to repress the wrongdoer = expressive restitutive justice: modern society, solidarity is based on interdependence between individuals. crime damages this, so it's necessary to repair the damage e.g compensation. aims to restore = punishment is expressive of collective emotions

Question 28

functionalist (durkheim) perspective on punishment Ao3

Answer 28

in traditional societies, they often have restitutive rather than retributive justice e.g blood feuds are often settled by a payment of compensation rather than. execution

Question 29

marxist perspective on punishment

Answer 29

how punishment is related to the nature of class society, and how it serves ruling class interests function = maintain existing social order as part of the RSA it means defending ruling class property against lower class Each type of economy has its own penal system - under capitalism, it becomes the dominant form of punishment it reflects production: - The prison and the capitalist factory have a similar strict disciplinary style

Question 30

marxist perspective on punishment AO2

Answer 30

Thompson 18th C punishments such as hanging were part of a rule of terror by the landed aristocracy over the poor

Question 31

punishment - imprisonment today

Answer 31

only since enlightenment that imprisonment was seen as a form of punishment itself since the 1980s, over towards 'populist punitiveness' where politicians have sought electoral popularity by calling for tougher sentences - e.g New Labour, prison should be used for petty crimes too to serve as a deterrent = prison population doubles in size 1993-2021 the prison population is larger, male, young, poorly educated

Question 32

punishment - prisons Ao3 - reoffending

Answer 32

2/3 prisoners commit further crime on release

Question 33

punishment - era of mass incarceration

Answer 33

From the 1970s, the numbers of prisoners rose rapidly 3% of the adult population is under the supervision of the CJS Garland - there is systematic imprisonment of whole groups = black americans 12% of the US population but 33% of the prison population has an ideological function as the US prison system takes in 30-40% of the unemployed, making capitalism look more successful reason for mass incaerceration = move towards punitive tough on crime policies

Question 34

punishment - transcarceration

Answer 34

trend towards transcarceration - idea that individuals become locked into a cycle of control shifting between different carceral agencies is a product of the blurring of boundaries between criminal justice and welfare agencies

Question 35

punishment - alternatives to prison

Answer 35

'diversion' - diverting young offenders away from CJS to avoid the risk of a self-fulfilling prophecy turning them into serious criminals community-based controls - curfews Cohen - this has just cast the net of control over more people. the increased range of sanctions available simply enables control to penetrate deeper into society

Question 36

victims of crime - positivist victimology AO1

Answer 36

Miers features - focuses on interpersoanl crimes of violence - aims to identify victims who have contributed to their own victimisation victim proneness - identify the social and psychological characteristics of vitcims that make them more vulnerable - female, elderly, mentally subnormal, lifestyle (display wealth) victim 'invite' victimssation

Question 37

victims of crime - positivist victimology AO2

Answer 37

Wolfgang's study of homocides in Philadelphia 26%vinvolved in victim precipitation - victim triggered the events e.g being the first to use violence

Question 38

victims of crime - positivist victimology AO3

Answer 38

ignores wider structural factors can tip over into victim blaming - the claim that 1/5 rapes are victim precipitated isn't very different from saying the victims asked for it

Question 39

victims of crime - critical victimology Ao1

Answer 39

2 elements: structural factors = which place powerless groups at greater risk of victimisation. victimisation is a form of structural powerlessness states the power to apply or deny the label of victim = it's a social construct - CJS applies a label to some but also withholds from others the ideological function - hides the crimes of the powerful and denies the powerless victims compensation

Question 40

victims of crime - critical victimology Ao2

Answer 40

safety crimes where employers' violations of the law can lead to deaths are often explained as the fault of accident prone workers = denies the victim 'victim status' and blames them

Question 41

victims of crime - critical victimology Ao3

Answer 41

disregards the role victims may play in bringing victimisation on themselves

Question 42

patterns of victimisation - class

Answer 42

poorest group most likely Ao2: survey of homeless people 12x more likely to experience violence

Question 43

patterns of victimisation - age

Answer 43

younger more at risk most risk of being murdered = infants under one teenagers most vulnerbale of assualt, sexual harrassment old = abuse

Question 44

patterns of victimisation - ethnicity

Answer 44

minority ethnic groups most at risk racialy motivated crimes feel under-protected and over-controlled on avg. 60,000 racially aggravated offences. ayear People from mixed ethnic backgrounds are higher risk of being a victim racist victimisation is ongoing over time with repeated 'minor' incidents of abuse minority ethnic communities are responsive to victimisation, e.g fireproof doors, self-defence campaigns - due to under protection from police who have often ignored racist victimisation

Question 45

patterns of victimisation - gender

Answer 45

homicide victims: 70% are men Females are more likely to know their killer - a partner males are more likely to be killed by a friend victims of violence: fewer women than men women are more likely to be victims of sexual violence and DV 5x more women than men report being SA

Question 46

patterns of victimisation - gender Ao3

Answer 46

victim surveys don't convey the frequency or severity of victimisation Women are more likely to be victims of multiple incidents of domestic abuse Women victims experience more severe violence and control

Question 47

victims of crime - impact of victimisation

Answer 47

'indirect' victims - friends and witnesses AO2 - a child that witnessed the sniper attack and grief related dreams hate crimes against minorities - cretae waves of harm as they are message crimes aimed at intimidating the whole community secondary victimisation - individuals may suffer further in the CJS feminists - rape victims suffer a double violation because of the poor treatment fear of victimisation - crime creates fear of being a victim. women are more scared to go out because of fear of attack, yet men are more likely to be attacked by a stranger