Contemporary urban environments

Question 1

urbanisation since 1945

Answer 1

globally the number and proportion of people living in urban areas has increased dramatically since 1945
in 1950, 30% of people lived in urban areas
in 2014, just over 50% of people lived in towns or cities

Question 2

urbanisation in the developed world since 1945

Answer 2

in the developed world the majority of people live in cities but the urban population has only slightly increased since 1945
this is because urbanisation began much sooner in the developed world than the developing world
during the industrial revolution many people moved to cities in search of work in mills and factories
although people are still moving to cities such as london and new york similar numbers of people are leaving these cities

Question 3

urbanisation in the developing world since 1945

Answer 3

in the developing world most people currently live in rural areas, but this is changing fast
in many developing countries and emerging economies old cities are growing in size and new cities are forming
e.g. in beijing, china, the urban population has increased from 4.4mil in 1970 to 20.4mil in 2015

Question 4

processes that affect the population of cities

urbanisation

Answer 4

growth in the proportion of people living in urban areas
usually occurs because of migration (rural-urban) and natural increase (birth rate higher than death rate)
people often migrate to cities for easier access to school and healthcare and because there are more jobs available
many migrants are young adults and then if they have children the population increases further
in developing countries, urbanisation can often result in shanty towns; unplanned and often illegal settlements made out of any material available

Question 5

processes that affect the population of cities

suburbanisation

Answer 5

the migration of people from city centres to the outskirts of the cities
as urbanisation increases cities become more crowded and people desire more space
improvement to transport links means people can live further away and commute to work
many people choose to move to the suburbs because they have children or retire
a complex pattern of wealthy and poorer areas develops,
wealthier middle class people choose to move to the suburbs where there is better quality of life
those left behind are poorer and may include foreign immigrants
this can lead to economic and ethnic segregation

Question 6

processes that affect the population of cities

counter urbanisation

Answer 6

the movement of people out of the city into surrounding villages and rural areas
improvements in transport mean people can commute to work and improvements in communication allow people to work from home
people leave cities because of high property prices and overcrowding, some people just prefer quieter urban areas
can lead to new housing estates being built in rural areas, house prices may increase meaning that some local people, usually young people cant afford to live there
can change the age structure of the area, average age may increase

Question 7

processes that affect the population of cities

urban resurgence

Answer 7

the movement of people back to the city centre
people may move back because of lack of jobs in rural or suburban areas, people are also attracted by new developments
common in many post industrial countries like uk and usa
new shops and services many open in the city as people move back, boosting the local economy and creating jobs
original residents may not be able to afford to live in the area anymore and may be forced to move to cheaper locations

Question 8

megacities characteristics and their role in global and regional economies

Answer 8

an urban area with a population of over 10 mil people, e.g. istanbul, turkey
1950: only 2 megacities; tokyo and new york
2014: 28 megacities
predicted to rise to 41 by 2030
more than two thirds of mega cities are in developing nations, e.g. lagos nigeria
develop because of rural urban migration and natural increase
migrants tend to move to large cities and cities that are experiencing rapid economic growth so their population increases rapidly
megacities dominate national and regional economies of countries. this is because companies choose to build their headquarters in cities with a high number of skilled workers and good transport links
often have people living at opposite extremes; really which whilst others in extreme poverty

Question 9

world cities characteristics and their role in global and regional economies

Answer 9

a world city is a city that has political and financial influence over the whole world, e.g. london and sydney
most are in the developed world but some, e.g. dubai and rio de janeiro are in emerging economies
numer of world cities are increasing, in 1950 the only world cities were london, paris, tokyo and new york
recently, economic growth in oil rich countries such as nigeria has allowed cities such as lagos to become contenders for world city status, these are increasingly important in global economies and businesses
since 1945 world cities such as london and newyork have emerged as the leaders on banking and finance
many banking companies such as hsbc have headquarters in these cities
world cities usually dominate international trade and regional economies in their area e.g. tokyo is extremely influential in international trade between the east asian nations.
world cities have good international transport links which allow them to trade with the rest of the world
home to world renowned universities, centres for science and innovation with highly quality research and development cities
centres for culture, home to large globally influential media and communications corporations
attract high numbers of people from other countries including migrants, business visitors, students and tourists

Question 10

processes associated with urbanisation and urban growth

economic

Answer 10

cities attract people from rural areas because the is more jobs that are also better paid
as urban population increases, businesses and shops grow and become more profitable which leads to more jobs and wage rises
as countries develop commercial farming overtakes subsistence farming as the primary method of food production, the decline in jobs drives more people into towns and cities

Question 11

processes associated with urbanisation and urban growth

social

Answer 11

cities tend to have higher living standards than rural areas e.g. better access to healthcare and education which attracts people, as more people move to the city and the economy grows it can become a centre of cultural expression
the migration of people increases the mix of people which can make people more tolerant and create a welcoming environment however segregation is also common

Question 12

processes associated with urbanisation and urban growth

technological

Answer 12

with the emergence of factories in cities, urban areas become hotspots for technological advancements
areas with a large number of high tech industries emerged, these attract people because they offer specialised and well paid jobs

Question 13

processes associated with urbanisation and urban growth

political

Answer 13

urban growth may lead to increased inequalities between rich and poor people
a new ‘working class’ emerges, often made up of people who work in manufacturing industries
new political movements occur to represent the ‘working class’ population
political reform focuses on issues that affect urban life, e.g. poor sanitation, lack of affordable housing

Question 14

processes associated with urbanisation and urban growth

demographic

Answer 14

as cities become larger and wealthier they attract migrants from all over the world
urban areas become more culturally and ethnically diverse and new areas emerge, e.g. chinatown in new york
many young people are attracted by jobs and entertainment and often choose to raise families in the city so they tend to have younger populations

Question 15

urban change

deindustrialisation

Answer 15

in the 1960’s some developing nations e.g. singapore become industrialised
these countries were able to produce goods at a cheaper price than europe or north america mainly due to lower labour costs
by the 1970s the developed world was struggling to compete with the products manufactured in the developing world, industries collapsed e.g. steel in sheffield which led to mass unemployment and poverty
in the uk deindustrialisation caused unemployment to rise to 3mil in 1983, the highest rate of unemployment since second world war

Question 16

urban change

rise of the service economy

Answer 16

during the 1980s many service industries e.g. retail and banking began to expand and dominate western economies
these industries have been responsible for the majority of economic growth in developed countries since deindustrialisation

Question 17

urban change

decentralisation

Answer 17

as land prices in city centres increase businesses such as shops and offices may relocate to the suburbs
this has led to the rise of out of town retail parks e.g. meadowhall near sheffield
decentralisation has caused city centre shops and offices to close, this has led to buildings being abandoned, job losses and urban poverty

Question 18

urban policy and regeneration in britain since 1979

urban development corporations 1979-1990s

Answer 18

1979, many uk city centres were in catastrophic decline, gov used urban development corporations which used private sector funding to restore derelict areas
e.g. london docklands to attract new businesses, improve the local environment, create jobs and build new houses for professionals
1993 twelve ucd’s established helping to redevelop some of the most deprived areas in the country, however they were criticised for ignoring the needs of local residents

Question 19

urban policy and regeneration in britain since 1979

enterprise zones 1981-present

Answer 19

established in areas of high unemployment, aim to attract start up companies to the area to create jobs by reducing tax or corporations and land
by 1990, housed over 5000 companies, employed more than 125000 people, however tax reductions encouraged many existing companies to move their premises and staff to ez’s which limited the number of new jobs created

Question 20

urban policy and regeneration in britain since 1979

city challenge 1991-1997

Answer 20

local authorities competed for government funding to regenerate deprived urban areas
they worked with local communities and private companies to improve the physical, economic, and social environment of the area
funding allocated to projects that benefited the local community e.g. improving housing and creating jobs
by 1997, 50,000 jobs creared and 40,000 houses improved however many deprived areas didnt receive any funding

Question 21

urban policy and regeneration in britain since 1979

partnership schemes, 2016-partnership schemes

Answer 21

since 2010 the gov has worked with private companies to provide financial support and expertise for urban regeneration: partnership schemes
designed to improve physical, economic and social conditions in deprived areas by building homes, providing parks and sports centres and reducing unemployment
e.g. liverpool city region for local enterprise partnership established in 2012, aims to increase business activity in liverpool and create new jobs

Question 22

urban form definition

Answer 22

urban form is the physical characteristics that make up a city, including its size and shape, population density, and how the city is arranged, e.g. land use patterns
many cities were initially established in areas with good water supplies, fertile soil for growing food, plentiful natural resource and good defensive positions
over time urban form of cities changes due to human and physical factors

Question 23

factors affecting urban form

physical

Answer 23

• topography: steep slopes harder to build on and less accessible so poorer housing e.g. slums may be built on them, large flat areas encourage low density developments because there is lots of space to build
• water: the presence of lakes and seas limits urban growth in those areas, while cities may grow along the course of a river. city centre shops and business are usually located close to the waterfront rather than at the geographical centre of a city
• natural resources: rich resources e.g. coal encourage growth in size and population of cities
• land types: some ground surfaces are more difficult of expensive to build on than others, e.g. swamps and wetlands can limit urban growth

Question 24

factors affecting urban form

human

Answer 24

• planning: urban expansion can be planned or unplanned e.g. a lot of urban growth in developing countries is caused by unplanned expansion of slums, in contrast, planned developments often include open space and leisure facilities
• infrastructure: new developments are often built along transport links e.g. motorways which lead to linear growth
• land value: the highest value land is often found in the city centre so profitable businesses e.g. chain stores are located there while less profitable businesses e.g. independent shops may be found further from the centre

Question 25

land use patterns in cities in the developed world

economic inequality, social segregation, cultural diversity and influencing factors

Answer 25

tend to have CBD, central business district, central zone of shops and businesses
the cbd is surrounded by housing. although land value tends to be highest in the city centre, houses generally increase in value with distance away from the centre
-inner city areas have high land value so housing is typically high density, e.g. skyscrapers. wages are often low and many residents live in relative poverty. the proportion from ethnic minorities tend to be high
-land value is lower in rural and semi rural areas so residential areas are less dense and have more open space, houses are usually larger and newer than those in inner city areas. residents are generally quite wealthy and earn relatively high wages. the proportion of people from ethnic minorities tends to be low
because of the availability of cheap land in semi rural areas close to urban centres many science parks and large shopping centres are constructed there, e.g. trafford centre in manchester

Question 26

land use patterns in cities in the developing world

economic inequality, social segregation, cultural diversity and influencing factors

Answer 26

cities in the developing world also
have cbds which contain shops, offices and entertainment services
the cbd is surrounded by housing which decreases in value with distance from the city centre
-land value is highest around the city centre so high cost housing e.g. luxury apartments is built there. wages are generally high and residents are wealthy. these areas are often home to wealthy immigrants from developed countries and emerging economies
-surrounding the high cost housing there is often a zone of medium cost housing which may have started as an informal settlement but gradually housing has been improved and some services have been provided
-land value is very low on the outskirts of cities so low cost and informal housing is built there, often with limited access to services such as clean water and electricity. most residents have poorly paid jobs and poverty levels are high. immigrants from elsewhere in the country and from other developing countries may settle there.

Question 27

new urban landscapes

town centre mixed developments

Answer 27

areas where land use is mixed, residential, commercial and leisure all combined
developments are planned by local councils often with private investment with the aim of attracting people back to city centres by providing opportunities to live, work and relax there

Question 28

new urban landscapes

fortress developments

Answer 28

developments with lots of security e.g cctv and guards
they are often located in the suburban areas of large cities and only those with permission can enter them
designed to give a safe environment for families but are very devise, only rich people can afford to live in or use them

Question 29

new urban landscapes

edge cities

Answer 29

new areas of offices, shops or leisure facilities that develop close to major transport links, e.g. motorway intersections outside of city centres where land is cheaper. they often contain some housing but most people travel to them for work or to use the services available
majority of edge cities have developed after 50/60s as car ownership has increased.

Question 30

new urban landscapes

cultural and heritage quarters

Answer 30

areas that focus on the history or character of a city
theatres, art galleries, historical buildings
developed by local councils to regenerate formal industrial areas, attract visitors encouraging economic development e.g. bristol harbourside tobacco factory etc

Question 31

new urban landscapes

gentrified areas

Answer 31

when wealthier people move into run down inner city areas and regenerate them by improving housing
large range of services e.g shops and restaurants and contain high quality housing
however, poorer residents may be displaced as the cost of living increases, leading to social and ethnic segregation

Question 32

the post modern western city and characteristics

Answer 32

developed countries
gradually moving away from uniformity in architecture and from clear cut patterns of land use: post modern western cities. characteristics:
-multiple centres with diff purposes
-focus of tertiary and quaternary industries
-less uniform architecture styles
-planning priorities aesthetics over practical
-higher social and economic inequality

Question 33

urban issues

economic inequality

Answer 33

the unequal distribution of money amongst a population
economic inequalities are higher in the developing world than in developed countries because developing lack resources to support poorest citizens whereas developed have welfare states which provide basic services and income for those struggling financially
can cause issues:
-political and social unrest e.g. rioting
-rise in crime, drug use and violence
-health problems, e.g. malnourishment

Question 34

urban issues

cultural diversity

Answer 34

cities tend to be culturally diverse, wide mix of people from different ethnic and cultural backgrounds
+ enrich a city’s character and increase tolerance, cultural quarters attract tourists boosting economies
issues:
-tensions between different groups leading to violence
-increased pressure on services e.g. extra school staff for students who cant speak the language
-minority communities feel isolated and under represented politically

Question 35

urban issues

social segregation

Answer 35

cities with high diversity may also experience social segregation: when different groups are separated from each other or a specific group is concentrated in a certsin area, can be voluntary or involuntary e.g. roma people in italy difficult to access housing
issues:
-prejudice and discrimination
-less access to education and jobs which widens inequalities
- lead to anxiety and have negative impacts on health and life expectancy
-poorer areas lack access to facilities and more likely to be close to industry and rubbish dumps, affecting health and wellbeing

Question 36

strategies to reduce poverty and economic inequalities in urban areas

Answer 36

• improving transport systems making it easier for the urban poor to access jobs
• affordable housing
• introducing minimum wage
• subsidies for new companies, creating employment opportunities
• upgrading programmes for slum settlements

Question 37

strategies to encourage social and cultural integration in urban areas

Answer 37

• governments encouraging political participation of minority groups
• laws to prevent discrimination in companies
• new developments include luxury homes and low coast housing reducing divisions
• communities ease racial tensions through group projects to clean off racist graffiti

Question 38

london

economic inequality, cultural diversity and social segregation

Answer 38

-home to richest and poorest in uk
-more than 25% live in poverty
annual income in chelsea £130,000 in newham £35000
-inner city areas gentrified e.g. nottinghill
-50%+ of popuation not white british, brent: 60% not white british but havering 16% suggesting ethnic segregation is an issue
-hate crime based on race and religion: anti muslim
-social segregation based on age and class, london residents have less interaction with people of different ages and class groups than elsewhere in the uk which could lead to some residents feeling isolated

Question 39

london

strategies to manage urban issues

Answer 39

• living wage £9.75 an hour
• affordable homes which allow less affluent people to remain in more expensive areas
• reporting hate crime and supporting victims
• english language classes and mentoring schemes

Question 40

sao paulo (developing)
economic inequality and social segregation

Answer 40

emerging economy
-high economic inequality, richest 10% earn 40x poorest 10%
clear segregation between rich and poor
-poorest live in slums with high crime, poor sanitation and high illness. lack educational facilities which limits job options and social mobility
-wealthiest live in south west, have more green spaces, better healthcare and access to amenities e.g. luxury shops and restaurants. large numbers of white immigrants and lowest proportion of black people in the city

Question 41

sao paulo (developing)
managing urban issues

Answer 41

• 2016 minimum wage raised by nearly 12% so increase income for poorest workers
• 2001 govs allowed favelas to be recognised as legitimate residential areas which led to investment in sanitation =, road building and housing improvements, 10,000 new homes currently being built to replace slum housing in high risk areas

Question 42

the impact of urban forms and processes on local climate and weather

Answer 42

urban areas are warmer than surrounding rural areas: the urban heat island effect/urban heat islands
highest temps are found in industrial areas and most densely populated built up areas, e.g. CBD
pockets of cool air above parks and bodies of water
areas with the same land use generally have the same temp: plateaus
temp can change rapidly when land use changes, e.g. from inner city housing to cbd high rise buildings: ‘cliffs’

Question 43

the urban heat island effect

4 causes

Answer 43

• absorption of heat by surfaces: concrete/brick/tarmac surfaces absorb and store heat from the sun during the day which is slowly released as long wave radiation
• air pollution: increases cloud cover and creates pollution dome. both trap outgoing heat radiation and reflect it back to the surface
• heat from human activity
• less evapotranspiration: when it rains water is quickly removed by drainage systems so little surface water to evaporate and little vegetation so little transpiration. evapotranspiration uses heat energy so less evapotranspiration means higher temperatures

Question 44

variations in the urban heat island effect

Answer 44

varies seasonally and day/night

• stronger at night, urban surfaces continue to release absorbed heat at night whereas rural areas cool down
• stronger in summer because more solar radiation so surfaces absorb more heat
• stronger when there’s an anticyclone: cause clear skies and low winds, no clouds means more solar radiation reaches and heats ground. low winds means warm air isnt blown away

Question 45

precipitation, fog and thunderstorms in urban environments

Answer 45

rains more often in urban areas than surrounding countryside and the rain is also more intense with more thunderstorms:
-uhi effect means the air in urban areas is warm and warm air can hold more water. the warm, moist air rises: convectional uplift. as it rises it cools, the water vapour condenses and it rains: convectional rainfall
-urban areas generate dust and pollution, particles of dust and pollution in the air act as condensation nuclei which encourages clouds to form rather than allowing warm, moist air to disperse
the higher concentration of condensation nuclei in urban areas also increases the frequency of fog
it doesnt snow as often in urban areas and when it does it melts quicker because it is warmer
also few days of frost for same reason

Question 46

winds in urban environments

Answer 46

• average wind speed lower in cities than urban areas because tall buildings create friction that slows down the moving air
• there are areas where wind speed is zero because some areas are totally sheltered from wind by buildings
• turbulence around buildings, happens when wind hits the face of a building. some is deflected down, round the sides and over the top. when these winds hit other buildings or the ground they cause vortices; bodies of swirling air
• powerful gusts of wind when wind is channeled down streets: canyon effect

Question 47

urban air quality

particulate pollution

Answer 47

particulates: tiny pieces of solids and tiny droplets of liquids floating in the air
more particulates are found in urban areas than rural
sources:
-vehicle exhausts
-burning of refuse, cigarettes and fuel
-construction, mining and quarrying
-plants and moulds
can cause health problems, finer particles can enter the lungs and cause respiratory problems

Question 48

urban air quality

photochemical smog

Answer 48

pollutants e.g. hydrocarbons result from burning fossil fuels
when these pollutants come into contact with sunlight the UV light causes them to breakdown in to harmful chemicals e.g. ozone which form photchemical smog
common in places with hot and sunny climates, e.g. los angeles, china, mexico, spain
these locations have a temperature inversion (a layer of warm air trapped below denser cool air) which keeps the pollutants at ground level
linked to health problems e.g breathing difficulties and headaches

Question 49

ways to reduce air pollution

congestion charging

Answer 49

charged for using vehicles in certain places at certain times
reduces pollution through reducing road traffic
london: reduced by 15% first year
some travel around the edge of zones to avoid being charged therefore increasing pollution
hard to enforce

Question 50

ways to reduce air pollution

pedestrianisation

Answer 50

vehicles restricted from entering certain places at certain times
e.g. cardiff, manchester
lead to shops receiving fewer customers

Question 51

ways to reduce air pollution

public transport improvements

Answer 51

encouraging public transport use
-park and ride
-trams
-improved buses
often expensive
can shift traffic problems to rural areas

Question 52

ways to reduce air pollution

other schemes for reducing traffic

Answer 52

• mexico city drivers banned fro using cars for one weekday per week however some people just buy 2 cars
• bristol: car sharing schemes

Question 53

ways to reduce air pollution
larger scale
legislation

Answer 53

• uk clean air act, smoke control areas where only smokeless fuels could be burned and reduced industrial pollution by introducing tall chimneys which meant that pollutants were dispersed higher in the atmosphere and therefore less damaging to people in the city
• road vehicles regulations reduce exhaust emissions by ensuring cars pass emissions test
• scotland: roadside emissions tests and issue fines

Question 54

ways to reduce air pollution

alternative fuels

Answer 54

• biofuels: replace diesel and petrol and lower particulate emissions however growing crops for fuels can decrease biodiversity
• lpg: produced from fossil fuels but lower emissions than petrol or diesel, however cars need to be converted and and service stations adapted
• electric vehicles: lower emissions but need recharging points and producing/disposing of batteries can cause emissions

Question 55

urban precipitation:

surfaces and catchment characteristics

Answer 55

urban areas are covered in impermeable materials e.g. concrete and tarmac and many urban areas are designed to shed water quickly
this means infiltration is low so replenishment of ground water stores is slow
groundwater feeds rivers, so during drier periods the river discharge in urban areas is low
precipitation in urban areas is higher than rural and storms are more intense which increase surface run off
run off is channelled through man made pipes which transport water to rivers and streams
low infiltration rates, high surface run off and channelling of water means that water enters rivers quickly
this gives a short lag time and high peak discharge with a fast return to base flow

Question 56

catchment management aims to reduce urban drainage issues

Answer 56

catchment management is a way of managing rivers and improving drainage systems by looking at the whole river catchment and the interactions between the water and land, it aims to minimise issues such a flooding, draught, water pollution and erosion in sensitive areas and to improve the river ecosystem
two main methods:
-hard engineering: dams, floodwalls and reservoirs which are often used to prevent flooding and ensure a costant water supply, but expensive and disrupt natural systems and also alter wildlife habitats
-soft: uses knowledge of river basin and its processes to work with nature, involves land use management and river restoration and coservation, cheaper and can improve local environment
decisions about what method to use made by experts so community may feel ignored
can be disruptive, e.g. three gorges dam in china flooded 13 cities and 140 towns forcing 1.2mil people to move

Question 57

the development of SUDS

Answer 57

sustainable urban drainage systems aim to imitate natural drainage systems rather than channelling water through pipes and drains
use several methods to decrease flooding, water pollution and drought
-vegetated trenches: increase interception of rainfall, and retention basins store water. this decreases run off and channel flow which lowers flood risk
-vegetated roofs: intercept rainfall and increase evapotranspiration which reduces flood risk
-containers on roofs to catch and store rainwater for reuse which helps to reduce drought risk
SUDS are more sustainable than traditional urban drainage methods because they work with the natural environment.
vegetated trenches and roofs also provide new habitats and increase biodiversity

Question 58

river restoration

Answer 58

aims to restore river systems to more natural state, can help decrease flood risk, decrease water pollution and create new habitats and increase biodiversity.

Question 59

enfield river restoration project

reasons for

Answer 59

the area is heavily urbanised which has caused problems

• spread of urban structures increased surface run off and channel flow into the river lea which has increased frequency and intensity of floods, 9000 homes at risk of flooding
• surface run off from roads increased levels of pollution in watercourses
• water pollution from domestic sources, 10% of houses in enfield have wastewater pipes that flow directly into rivers

Question 60

enfield river restoration project

aims

Answer 60

• reduce flood risk and limit impacts of flooding
• reduce surface runoff in order to improve water quality
• provide more habitats for wildlife and new recreational areas

Question 61

enfield river restoration project

attitudes

Answer 61

used SUDS to restore river system and meet these aims

• vegetated trenches: absorb run off, decrease flood risk
• rain planters installed in schools, manage the flow of water into drains, lowering flood risk and educated children
• wetlands constructed to improve water quality

Question 62

enfield river restoration project

parties involved

Answer 62

• defra and thames water providing funding
• local residents: positive, water quality monitoring and litter pickup
• local schools offer education essions to increase engagement

Question 63

enfield river restoration project

evaluation

Answer 63

some success already but ongoing
-flood risk reduced
-SUDS reduced ammonia levels and nitrogen levels
-populations of eels and some species of insects have increased
however, pollution and litter are still and issue in many rivers

Question 64

sources of waste

Answer 64

industrial waste: waste produced in a manufacturing process or an industrial activity, can be toxic or corrosive
commercial waste: waste produced by businesses
personal waste: waste produced by private homes

Question 65

waste components and waste streams

economic characteristics

Answer 65

• richer=consume more goods=developed countries produce more waste than developing
• developed countries main component is paper and organic material whilst in developing it is organic material and plastic
• no clear cut link between waste streams and wealth, in developed countries there is no formal recycling systems but many people collect recyclable goods from landfill and sell them to make a living

Question 66

waste components and waste streams

lifestyles

Answer 66

• amount/type depends on living in the city or the country, urban=more manufactured waste, rural=organic
• easily accessible recycling facilities=more likely to recyle
• diet, processes food=waste and packaging, fruit and eg more compostable and less packaging

Question 67

waste components and waste streams

attitudes

Answer 67

• developed: throw away culture=high levels of non recyclable and complex waste streams
• health concerns=throw away food at sell by date increasing food waste
• different attitudes towards environment
• move towards decrease and consumption of waste: freegans

Question 68

waste streams

Answer 68

largest components of waste is organic material, majority of waste is easy to manage but some is hazardous
waste stream: flow of waste from origin to disposal
-recycled
-broken down into component parts and disposed of separately

Question 69

ways to manage urban waste

Answer 69

unregulated: dumped, damage ecosystems
recycling: reprocessed, reduces demand for raw materials which decreases energy use however collections cause emissions
incineration: reduces amount of waste but causes pollution
recovery: fewer natural resources exploited
burial (landfill): chemicals can contaminate groundwater, gases can be collected for energy production
submergence: illegal, damage ecosystems
trade: bought and sold, may not be disposed of safely by developing so damage environments

Question 70

urban waste

singapore

Answer 70

from landfill to incineration
land is scarce
incineration with energy recovery
4 incineration plants, provide 3% of energy needs, fitted with pollution control systems
only one landfill site, lined with impermeable membrane and a layer of clay to prevent leakage
once each site is full it is covered with topsoil to support vegetation and can become home to rare species
2% landfill, 38% incinerated, 60% recycled.
only waste that cant be recycled or burnt goes to landfill
incinerators only last around 10 years and filters cant stop all emissions
current landfill expected to be filled by 2040

Question 71

urban environmental issues

air pollution

Answer 71

• developed: reliance on fossil fuels decreasing so air qual increased since 1950
• -car ownership increasing=pollution
• developing/emerging still rely on fossil fuels and increased industrial activity + car ownership and lack of regulation = severe pollution
• developed=strategies to limit pollution
• developing=slow progress, phased out use of leaded petrol

Question 72

urban environmental issues

water pollution

Answer 72

• high population density=high waste including wastewater and sewage as well as oils and minerals which can enter water courses
• cities have high concentration of factories that discharge into water courses
• damage ecosystems and contaminated drinking water causes health problems
• laws, catchment management and suds can help
• developed: strict regulations and water is monitored, however litter and surface run off still causes pollution
• developing/emerging=few regulations and inadequate treatment facilities mean pollution is common

Question 73

urban derelication

Answer 73

happens when economic activity in urban areas declines and buildings become run down
-manufacturing moves overseas and decentralisation of industry leads to industrial decline and unemployed people leave urban areas in search of work
-lots of people leave = shops close and services go in to decline and leave empty buildings
-empty buildings have problems with vandalism, graffiti and crime
more common in developed where widespread deindustrialisation has occurred
management: redevelopment and construction of green spaces
some cities lack investment and large areas remain derelict, e.g. detroit

Question 74

bangkok issues

air pollution

Answer 74

• rise in car ownership and poor vehicle maintenance
• 5000 premature deaths per year
• gov improved public transport and drivers fined if cars emit high levels of exhaust fumes

Question 75

bangkok issues

water pollution

Answer 75

• poor sewage systems and ineffective waste management means severe water pollution, river water contains high levels of bacteria from human waste
• 1960s: various plans to improve sewage systems however been too expensive to implement

Question 76

bangkok issues

dereliction

Answer 76

• buildings left half finished during the financial crisis
• economic growth since 2010 led to completion of many unfinished buildings and the gov offered incentives for foreign investment

Question 77

manchester overcoming issues

air pollution

Answer 77

• closure of factories and better management of air pollution reduced illness
• improving bus services, cycle paths and pedestrian walkways to reduce car pollution

Question 78

manchester overcoming issues

water pollution

Answer 78

• since 1987 extensive work to clean up waterways, increasing oxygen content, encouraging aquatic plant growth and picking up litter
• installing SUDS to reduce run off from roads

Question 79

manchester overcoming issues

dereliction

Answer 79

• deindustrialisation and job losses caused people to leave the city in 90s leaving it underpopulated and shops+residential areas were abandoned
• redevelopment began in 1996, mills and factories converted into luxury flats, open spaces improved and funds for new businesses, city centre population tripled

Question 80

impact of urban areas on local and global environments

Answer 80

local: increasing air pollution, water pollution, flood risk and by generating large amounts of water
also causes loss of open spaces resulting in loss of habitats and biodiversity
global: cities increased demand for resources outs pressure on resources leading to food, water and energy insecurity
cities responsible for 60% greenhouse gas emissions

Question 81

ecological footprint

Answer 81

the amount of land needed to produce everything they consume and to absorb their waste, ecological footprint of an area combines the footprints of its residents
depends on:
-wealth - richer=consumption and production of waste higher
-size of city - compact=easier to travel round on foot or bike so less pollution
-quality of public transport - efficient decreases car use therefore less pollution

Question 82

sustainable defintion

Answer 82

meet the needs of todays people without preventing future generations from meeting their needs

Question 83

dimensions of sustainability

natural

Answer 83

• how environment, resources and waste is managed
• high natural sustainability = rely on renewable energy sources, produce relatively little waste or recycle the waste they use
• walk/cycle/use public transport=less pollution=more sustainable

Question 84

dimensions of sustainability

physical

Answer 84

• how well the city is able to support people living there
• provide enough resources to support population and let them be productive
• high qual housing, secure supplies of food and safe water+energy

Question 85

dimensions of sustainability

social

Answer 85

• how people live together, qual of life and availability of basic services
• good living conditions for all residents, access to basic services
• peaceful, tolerant, respect human rights and poltically stable

Question 86

dimensions of sustainability

economic

Answer 86

• maintaining economic growth without causing long term negative effects
• wealthy, low levels of inequality, little debt, home to profitable and ethical businesses that offer well paid jobs

Question 87

liveability

Answer 87

how good living conditions are
depends on job ops, crime rates, open space and access to education
diff factors matter more to diff people

Question 88

opportunities to develop sustainable cities

Answer 88

• people more densely concentrated in urban areas so provision of services such as clean water and public transport is quicker and easier
• understanding the importance of urban sustainability has increased
• govs invest more in urban sustainability initiatives than rural ones because they benefit more people

Question 89

challenges to developing sustainable cities

Answer 89

• requires significant investment
• many cities are growing so public services need to expand rapidly to meet needs of larger population
• some unwilling to change habits
• some cities dont have appropriate infrastructure, e.g. roads not wide enough for cycle lanes

Question 90

strategies for increasing urban sustainability

Answer 90

• reducing number of cars on road
• increasing amount of green space
• improving urban waste disposal
• increasing renewable energy use
• reducing water use
• making buildings more energy efficient