Contemporary Urban Environments

Question 1

What is urbanisation?

Answer 1

Urbanisation is where the proportion of people living in a town or city increases.

Question 2

From 1945 to 2015, how has urbanisation been affected?

Answer 2

Urbanisation has increased, with the proportion of the global population living in urban areas increasing from 1/3 to 1/2.

Question 3

From 1945 to 2015, how many more people live in urban areas?

Answer 3

There was an increase from 0.7 billion in 1945 to 4 billion in 2015.

Question 4

Which continent is expected to be more than 80% urban by 2050?

Answer 4

Europe.

Question 5

What is deindustrialisation?

Answer 5

An absolute decline in the importance of manufacturing in the economy of a country. In turn, there may be a fall in it’s contribution to the GDP. Can be due to outsourcing from overseas.

Question 6

What is decentralisation?

Answer 6

An outward movement of population and industry from more central areas to the suburbs and smaller urban areas.

Question 7

What is the service economy?

Answer 7

An increase in employment, education, healthcare, retailing. Seen more often in developed countries.

Question 8

What is suburbanisation?

Answer 8

Suburbanisation is a process that has transformed the physical and social landscape of cities around the world. It involves the expansion of urban areas into previously rural or undeveloped land on the periphery, as well as the growth of suburban communities outside of the city centre.

Question 9

What are the causes of suburbanisation?

Answer 9

Suburbanisation is caused by a mixture of push and pull factors.

City centres tend to be very crowded and noisy, with high crime rates, a lack of green space, and a higher cost of living. They can also be affected by deindustrialisation, causing jobs to be lost and people to move away.

Suburbs tend to have cheaper housing/rent prices, and larger housing, often with gardens, making it suitable to raise a family. They can also have a higher quality of public transport, and experience industrial developments often, bringing residents to the area in search of employment.

Question 10

What are the characteristics of suburbanisation?

Answer 10

• Low housing density, as buildings have more space in between them than in urban areas.
• Separation, with homes and businesses being split into different individual structures.
• No defined centre, just many different business and residential areas.
• Gentrification, in which wealthier people move into poorer suburbs closer to the city and renovate the houses/ wealthier people are able to afford larger houses on the outskirts of town.

Question 11

What are the effects of suburbanisation?

Answer 11

Green belt land surrounds a town or city - may engulf towns or cities - urban sprawl.
Out of town shopping - e.g. big retail shops on the outskirts of Reading.

Question 12

What is counter-urbanisation?

Answer 12

The movement of people from large urban areas into smaller urban areas/rural areas. This does not lead to growth in suburbs, but rather growth in rural areas, which can lead to the boundary between rural and urban areas becoming reduced.

Question 13

What are the causes of counter-urbanisation?

Answer 13

• People wishing to escape from the air pollution, dirt and crime of the urban environment.
• The “rural idyll” (an idea that presents rural areas as happier, healthier and with less problems than urban areas). This causes people to see rural areas as pleasant and quiet.
• Improvements in technology have allowed more freedom of location e.g. the spread of broadband and high speed internet access allows those working from a home computer to access the same system as a person in a city centre.
• Car ownership.

Question 14

What are the positive effects of counter-urbanisation?

Answer 14

• Reduced congestion and pollution, as with people, moving away from cities, there are fewer cars on the road leading to less traffic and less pollution.
• Improved quality of life, as people who move to suburban/rural areas can enjoy more space, cleaner air and better access to nature, which can lead to improved mental and physical health.
• Lower cost of living, as housing costs, food prices and other expenses may be lower, which can help people to save money and improve their financial situation.

Question 15

What are the negative effects of counter-urbanisation?

Answer 15

• Increased demand for resources, as more people moving to these areas means an increased demand for water, electricity, and transportation, which can put a strain on local infrastructure and services.
• Negative environmental impacts, as counter urbanisation leads to increased development in rural and suburban areas, which can lead to habitat destruction and increased pollution.
• Increases in house prices, as development in rural areas leads to increases in the value of housing in the area.

Question 16

Give an example of an area going through suburbanisation.

Answer 16

Stoke Gifford in South Gloucestershire, located approximately 5 miles away from the city of Bristol, has urbanised in correlation with Bristol’s urban sprawl, with it’s population growing by 40% from 2001-2011.

Question 17

What is urban resurgence?

Answer 17

The process of people moving back into the city, especially after the deterioration of the area. Usually occurs when schemes are put in place aiming to improve QoL in the area, encouraging the city to economically grow and regenerate.

Question 18

What are the downsides to urban resurgence?

Answer 18

It can cause socioeconomic inequalities, with gentrification and excess wealth in the newly redeveloped areas meaning that the original population struggles to keep up with higher prices for housing and living.

Question 19

What is a megacity?

Answer 19

An urban area with a very high population, specifically over 10 million people.

Question 20

How has the number of megacities changed since the 1950s?

Answer 20

In the 1950s there were only two megacities - New York and Tokyo. By 2016 there were 31 megacities, and it is predicted that by 2030 there will be 43.

Question 21

Describe the location of the world’s megacities.

Answer 21

More than two thirds of all megacities are concentrated within developing nations, and Asia accounts for over half of the world’s megacities.

Question 22

What is a world city?

Answer 22

Cities that have significant political and economic influence on a global scale. They aren’t defined by their size or population, but rather by their importance to world affairs.

Question 23

What are town centre mixed developments?

Answer 23

Urban areas where there is mixed land use, including offices, shops, flats and entertainment facilities.

Question 24

What are cultural and heritage quarters?

Answer 24

Urban areas that have been developed with the driving force linked to cultural aspects like museums and art galleries e.g. Lincoln’s Cathedral Quarter.

Question 25

What are fortress developments?

Answer 25

Urban areas where there is restricted access to residential buildings to provide a private space; CCTV and security systems, gated communities.

Question 26

What are edge cities?

Answer 26

Urban locations that have developed near transport infrastructure like motorways.

Question 27

What is the urban heat island effect?

Answer 27

The warming of large cities because of the increased heat energy sourced from people and transport. Large cities like London and New York experience the urban heat island effect because their large populations create great sources of heat energy.

Question 28

What causes the urban heat island effect?

Answer 28

• Densely packed buildings retaining heat, making the areas nearby warmer.
• Heat is generated from people going about their day to day lives burning energy by running and riding a bicycle, which are popular modes of transport in densely populated cities like London.
• Planners construct taller buildings in a bid to create more space, which in turn prevents heat from escaping, increasing the temperature of the surroundings.

Question 29

Why is it often warmer and wetter in urban location compared with rural locations?

Answer 29

Urban areas increase the frequency and intensity of precipitation because of convection rainfall. The warmer air causes increased condensation and, in turn, cloud formation. The increased rate of condensation causes a rise in the occurrences of FOG.

Question 30

How does wind behaviour differ in urban areas and rural areas?

Answer 30

• Urban areas tend to have lower wind speeds compared to rural areas because the buildings cause friction, slowing down the air.
• Tall buildings enhance downdrafts, which are when air rapidly descends towards the ground. As the wind encounters the building it’s forced downward, redirecting the wind and increasing wind speed near the ground.
• The Venturi effect essentially funnels wind in between two buildings, meaning that in certain places in a city, wind speed can increase dramatically. This also redirects wind flow.

Question 31

What is particulate pollution?

Answer 31

Particulate pollution is made up of both solids and liquids that are suspended in the air (particulates). These are formed as a result of building construction, burning of fuels and vehicle exhausts, and are known to cause health problems, like many urban citizens suffering from respiratory diseases.

Question 32

What is photo-chemical pollution?

Answer 32

Photo-chemical pollution, also known as smog, is caused by chemicals from the burning of fossil fuels reacting with sunlight. When gases such as sulphur oxide and nitrogen oxide, which are created from the burning of fossil fuels, react with sunlight, they break down and form harmful substances that lead to smog.

Question 33

What policies have been introduced to reduce air pollution in urban areas?

Answer 33

• Legislation such as the Clear Air Act in the United States, which sets emission standards for various pollutants, can be used to control pollution.
• Vehicle control regulations like the UK’s ULEZ (Ultra Low Emission Zones) require vehicles to meet specific emission standards, controlling vehicle emissions and promoting public transportation.
• Land use zoning involves the planning of land to minimize environmental impact and control pollution. These regulations designate areas for specific purposes, such as residential, commercial or industrial, to prevent pollution sources from being close to sensitive areas.

Question 34

What are SUDS?

Answer 34

Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems are a natural approach to managing drainage near properties.

Question 35

What are the benefits of using SUDs?

Answer 35

• Reduce water pollution.
• Slow down surface run-off, potentially reducing the risk of flooding.
• Replenish groundwater supplies, reducing the risk of drought.
• Create habitats for wildlife to increase local biodiversity.

Question 36

List common SUDS techniques.

Answer 36

• Swales: wide and shallow drainage channels that are normally dry.
• permeable road/pavement surfaces.
• infiltration trenches: drains/filter strips filled in with gravel. often used in conjunction with swales.
• bioretention trenches: gravel/sand filtration layers between wetland habitats that collect, store and filter dirty water, as well as providing habitats for wildlife
• detention basins: excavated basins that act as holding ponds for water storage during flood events.
• green roofs: super-insulating habitats with minimal runoff to gutters.

Question 37

What is catchment management?

Answer 37

Catchment management involves looking at the interactions between the water supplies, river channel and surrounding land.
The main purpose is to consider a range of factors and put in place strategies that aim to reduce the risk of flooding, pollution, degradation of ecosystems and drought.

Question 38

What are the 3 key sources of urban waste?

Answer 38

• Domestic waste: generated by homes.
• Commercial waste: generated by businesses.
• Industrial waste: generated in the manufacturing of products.

Question 39

Why is there more waste in developed and urban areas compared to developing and rural areas?

Answer 39

• Rising wealth in developed countries leads to increased consumption of services and products, causing a rise in waste production.
• Waste in urban areas is higher than in rural areas because the consumption of manufactured products is higher than in rural areas.
• In more developed countries, there is often a “throw-away culture”, where items like clothing and electronic gadgets are often replaced by new, trendier items, increasing the amount of waste created in developed countries as a large proportion of this waste is not recyclable.

Question 40

What are the impacts of unregulated waste disposal?

Answer 40

Waste is often leaked into local water sources because there aren’t environmental laws and policies. This contributes to the pollution of local water sources that are used by people, leading to the spread of water-borne diseases. Additionally, the pollution of these water sources has an impact on wildlife.

Question 41

What are the impacts of recycling?

Answer 41

The introduction of recycling targets set by governments to local councils is leading to greater investment in recycling facilities and better education of residents about recycling. However, the processes involved in the recycling of waste increase greenhouse gas emissions.

Question 42

What are the impacts of burning waste?

Answer 42

The process of burning waste leads to the release of greenhouse gases. So it has to be carefully managed to reduce the impact on the local environment and people.

Question 43

What problems are associated with waste burial?

Answer 43

• The leaching of chemicals as waste decomposes.
• The release of methane during decomposition.
• An increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

Question 44

What are condensation nuclei?

Answer 44

Tiny particles or aerosols in the atmosphere that serve as centres for the formation of water droplets. Usually formed from aerosol - a mixture of dust, vehicle exhausts, soot from fires, salts, etc. They are important in shaping urban climate condition, as their concentration essentially decides a city’s average weather conditions, with a city with a low concentration of condensation nuclei forming less clouds and experiencing less precipitation.

Question 45

Explain the phenomenon of urban thunderstorms.

Answer 45

• The rising heat from sources such as water vapour, condensation nuclei, industry and vehicles can trigger heavier and more frequent thunderstorms in urban areas. The more intense the heating is, the more violent the storm will be. This is because hot, humid air rises higher and faster into the atmosphere. This air then cools and condenses rapidly, which forms water droplets, hail and ice, which charge the thundercloud and discharge as lightning.