Conservatism + Liberalism

Question 1

What are the key beliefs of liberals?

Answer 1

• Liberals believe in equality of opportunity not equality of outcome (key difference between them + socialists)
• Liberals aim to maximise liberty not equality
• Liberals aim to mitage the effects of discrimination
• Believe that society must give up individual liberty to achieve equality; the aim of equality must be dropped to achieve individual liberty
• Rawls: inequality can be justified if it benefits society as a whole; cannot be justified if it leads to the poorest beinh worse off than they were before

Question 2

What do liberals believe about tolerance?

Answer 2

• Everyone has an equal moral worth + everyone should have the same rights as others
• All liberals celebrate diversity
• Believe that illiberal thoughts are allowed but not illiberal actions
• Liberals don’t tolerate the intolerable; harm principle
• Everyone can do anything they want if nobody is being harmed by their actions
• e.g FGM is a cultural practice that isn’t tolerated by liberals; they accept + agree with FGM reporting laws

Question 3

What does liberism believe about individualism

Answer 3

• Believes in the primacy of the individual
• Individual freedom shouldn’t be stopped unless it causes harm
• The conformity of society stifles individualism
• Don’t like excessive state power
• Freedom of speech + assembly are key
• Clash between liberalism + religious fundamentalism

Question 4

What do liberals believe about freedom of liberty?

Answer 4

• Ability + right to make decisions in our own interests
• People can join any political organisation of their our choice (if they don’t pose a threat)
• Children cannot have full rights; individual rights can only be given to rational + responsible adults
• Seeks emancipation of the individual from outdated conventions
• Best way to run the economy is through capitalism

Question 5

What is postive and negative freedom?

Answer 5

Positive freedom; freedom to perform a certain activity without outside interference
Negative freedom; freedom from discrimination or harm

Question 6

What do liberals believe about rationalism?

Answer 6

• Humans are rational + capable of reason; our behaviour is determined by rational interest rather than irrational emotions + prejudice
• Humans should be entrusted with as much freedom as possible

Question 7

Explain liberal democracy

Answer 7

• Democracy which balances the will of the people (shown in elections) with limited government (state) + a respect for civil liberties
• Classical liberals viewed democracy as a ‘mob rule’ + ‘tyranny of majority’; as the majorities view could threaten the liberty of minorities aka elective dictatorship
• Want the state to be open, accountable + transparent

Question 8

Explain why liberals support laissez-faire capitalism

Answer 8

• Laissez-faire capitalism = an economic system in which the government abstains from interfering in the allocation of resources
• Liberalism + capitalism are synonymous; capitalism is even supported by social liberals
• Capitalism is more economically efficient as it enables consumers to choose, allows for economic growth + for countries to trade peacefully
• Tensions exist between modern (more intervention) + classical liberlas (little to no intervention) on how much the state should intervene in the economy

Question 9

How do liberals view the state?

Answer 9

• State is ‘neccessary’ to avoid disorder but ‘evil’ as it can remove individual liberty
• “Agents of the state” should limit their actions
• Liberals try to restrict state power + aim to strenthen human rights
• State should allow full religious expression
• Unlike anarchists liberals believe their is some role for the state; social contract

Question 10

How do liberals view the relationship between the state and citizens?

Answer 10

Role of the State: state’s role should be constrained by the conventions of liberal democracy
Role of the Citizen: should be legislation + constitutional safeguards to protect human rights + liberty

Liberal Aims of the State: wish to disperse power away from the centre + towards local land (devolution)
Liberal Aims of Citizens: liberals are highly supportive of constitutionalism

Liberals’ position on the State: those in power should be held to account + subject to adequate levels of scrutiny
Liberal’s position on Citizens: liberals favour a codified constitution with a clear set of human rights (US Bill of Rights)

Application on the State: liberals strongly favour open government (FOIA 2000)
Application on Citizens: individuals should always possess inalienable rights

Question 11

Explain liberal beliefs about freedom of speech; key thinker Mill

Answer 11

• Mill’s harm principle; humans can do whatever they want as long as their actions don’t harm anyone
• Free speech should be limited by laws which prevent slander + discrimination
• Mill denied the right of the harm principle (to not experience harm) to the **“uncivillised, childish and backwards” **people who have very extremist or ‘wrong’ views
• Mill argues that there must be some limitation upon human behaviour + to protect the liberty of the other

Question 12

What to classical and modern liberals disagree on when it comes to the state’s involvement in the economy

Answer 12

Both classical + modern liberal seek to promote liberty
* Classical liberals beliece that ‘trickle down’ econmics allows wealth to reach the poorest through marker activity
* Modern liberals believe that the state needs to use **progressive taxation + the ‘wefare state’ to help the poorest **
Progressive taxation = a tax system, in which those on a **higher income pay a higher % of their income tax **

Question 13

What are the shared beliefs for all types of liberals?

Answer 13

1. Belief in all key principles of liberals
2. The state should ensure equality of opportunity
3. The state can be involved in taking anti-discrimination measures (positive discrimination/affirmative action)
4. The state should ensure liberty + freedom for all

Question 14

Explain the views and beliefs of Classical Liberalism?

Answer 14

Classical Liberalism:
Ideolgical spectrum: Libertarian right
Key Theorists: Smith + James Mill
Dominant century: 19th century
Role of the State: Night-watchmen; should run a ‘balanced budget’ and adopt **‘good fiscal housekeeping’
Economy: ** Laissez-faire capitalism; in favour of privatisation and deregulation; “the freer the
market the freer the people”

Question 15

Explain the views and beliefs of Modern Liberalism?

Answer 15

Modern Liberalism:
Ideolgical spectrum: Libertarian left
Key Theorists: Keynes, Beveridge, T.H. Green, J.S.Mill(later work)
Dominant century: Post war consensus
Role of the State: Intervention to promote liberty and equality of opportunity ‘from the cradle to the grave’; in recession there is no need to run a ‘balanced budget’ and a **budget deficit may be needed
Economy: Mixed economy; a modest
redistribution of wealth and income**
is allowed

Question 16

Explain what Smith argues about capitalism and the marketand what type of liberalist belief is it

Answer 16

• **Early classical liberalism **
• Smith argued that capitalism, via the **‘individual hand’ **of market forces had a limitless capacity to enrich society and the individuals within it
• The wealth acquired by individuals would trickle down to the rest of the population
• This was only so long as the state took a laissez-faire approach to the workings of a market-economy
• Smith also advocated the end of tariffs and duties on the importation of goods to protect domestic producers. He argued for the spread of** free trade between nation-states**

Question 17

Explain what Mill believed about debelopmental individualism and why it was important and what type of liberalist belief is it

Answer 17

* Later classical liberalism *
* Mill hoped that developmental individualism would advance individual potential
* This would promote a** liberal consensus **in society, safeguarding tolerance, rationality and individualism.
* A vote would be withheld from the unschooled and illiterate, whereas those with a university degree would receive more than one vote.

Question 18

Explain what Friedan argued about how modern liberalism allows for state interventions

Answer 18

• Friedan argued that interventionist agencies like the EEOC were consistent with liberal values as the criminalisation of sexual discrimination merely protected the rights of certain sections of society, thereby consistent with **Mill’s harm principle **

Question 19

Explain what later classical liberal belived about individuals autonomy within advancing societies and what this meant to allow for equality of opportunity

Answer 19

* Later classical liberalism *
* Argued that advanced societies showed that **individuals were not autonomous but were actually subject to social and economic factors that were a creation of an industrialised society
* So self-realisation was not possible for some individuals, so social justice would be required if individuals were to fulfil their potential**

Question 20

Explain what Wolstonecraft argued about the treatment of women in the 18th century and what type of liberal she was

Answer 20

• Early classical liberalism
• Mary Wollstonecraft argued that the treatment of women in the 18th century was an affront to reason and an affront to the individual liberty of half the adult population
• Wollstonecraft contested the idea that women were emotional creatures, suited only to a life of domesticity
• While we see such attitudes as liberal, they were considered radical and revolutionary in the 18th century.

Question 21

Explain what Mill meant by developmental liberalismand what type of liberal belief this was

Answer 21

* Later classical liberalism
*Mill’s interpretation of liberalism has often been referred to as developmental liberalism
* This was the idea that an individual was a progressive being and should not be limited to liberty in the now but should be concerned with what he or she could become

Question 22

Explain how modern liberals view the role of the state within society

Answer 22

Whereas classical liberals upheld the view that a minimal state was necessary to safe-guard individualism
Modern liberals argued that only a larger state could repel the new, socio-economic threats to freedom and individualism
This was seen with the Liberal government from 1906-1910 introducing many policies that guaranteed a** basic standard of living**

Question 23

Explain Bentham’s utilitarian’ state

Answer 23

• **Bentham’s utilitarian state **is a system which aims to maximise overall happiness and minimise suffering through democracy as people would be inclined not to prioritise their own interests but that of the whole of society thus allowing for social progress
• Bentham introduced the idea that governments should act in a way which maximises the overall happiness of the majority by focusing on the **general welfare of the country **
• Once widespread education had been achieved, liberal values could be furthered, refining Bentham’s utilitarian state as people would vote in the interests of all, not just in their own selfish interests

Question 24

Explain Locke’s key beliefs about the state and human nature which were considered revolutionary in the 18th century

Answer 24

** Early classical liberalism*
* Locke’s idea that there should be government of consent **was a radical idea at the time.
* Believe that **humans were inherently rational or that society should be geared towards maximising individual freedom **were widely held in the 18th century
* Lockean ideas in the 17th and 18th centuries needed vigorous argument in defence and sometimes revolutionary upheaval

Question 25

Explain Keynes’s beliefs about capitalism and what type of liberalism it is

Answer 25

• Modern liberalism
• Keynes** rejected the argument that the market is a self-correcting mechanism** naturally inclined towards reaching a state of equilibrium
• Believed that laissez-faire capitalism with its cycles of recession and unemployment did nothing to advance individualism
• Keynes argued that the state must steer the economy and manage demand so that full employment could be secured, without which individual liberty could not be achieved
• Believed the government should implement a system of automatic stabilisers to smooth out the trade cycle; state could** ‘fine-tune’ the economy by manipulating the level of demand** within the economy
• An** increase in government spending and a reduction in taxation would bolster demand**, whereas a
  cut in government spending and an increase in taxation would lower consumer demand; so gov could deal with both inflation + unemployment
• Keynes’ economic strategy influenced successive world governments in the 20th century, from Roosevelt’s New Deal in the 1930s to successive British governments from 1945-1979 + Brown’s response to the financial crisis of 2008
• It matched both the Tory notion
  of paternalism and the social democratic strand of socialism.

Question 26

Explain Rawls key beliefs about the most disadvantaged and what type of liberalism they are

Answer 26

• Rawls argued that society should look to ameliorate the condition of the least fortunate in society
• Rawls didn’t argue for equality of outcome and accepted that there would be inequality depending on an individual’s efforts
• This is what distinguished modern liberalism from socialism and a centrally planned economy

Question 27

Explain Smiles beliefs about individualism and what type of liberal beliefs they are

Answer 27

* Later classical liberalism
* Smiles feared that individualism was being threatened by the advent of socialism
* Believed that self-reliance was achievable for most individuals, including the working-classes
* Industrialisation made this more difficult, the challenge would merely make more fully developed individuals. A socialist state would **remove this challenge and leave stunted human beings with their liberty wasted*

Question 28

Explain early classical liberal beliefs about the minimal state

Answer 28

• Thomas Jefferson summed up[ the minimal state when he said, ‘The government that is best is that which governs least … when government grows, our liberty withers.
• The belief in a minimal state also strengthened classical liberalism’s faith in the dispersal of political power; a **state with checks and balances **would be one where bold state action would be difficult and therefore infrequent

Question 29

Explain how Bentham argued for a utilitarian society in a modern world, how the state would be involved in the this and what type of liberal belief it is

Answer 29

* Later classical liberalism **
* Bentham acknowledged that in an industrialised economy there would be more clashes between individuals than early classical liberals had envisaged
* The liberal state would need to create legislation based on the greatest happiness of the greatest number of the population**
* This provided liberalism with one of its earliest** justifications for democracy**

Question 30

Explain what Spencer argues about a mnimal state and what type of liberal belief it is

Answer 30

* Early classical liberalism *
* Spencer sought to apply Darwin’s theory of natural selection to society
* A minimal state and ‘survival of the fittest’ would lead to a society where those unable to enjoy the benefits of individualism would be **eliminated, creating a society where individual freedom could thrive
* Known as ‘social Darwinism’**

Question 31

Explain what Rawls believed about how the enlarged state and what type of liberal belief it is

Answer 31

* Modern classical liberalism*
* Rawls set out to show that while an enlarged state would require individuals sacrificing some of their money in the form of progressive taxation
* Rawls argued that the enabling state was perfectly consistent with the liberal state of government by consent
* Rawls proposed the** ‘original position’ where individuals make decisions under a ‘veil of ignorance’ where individuals are unaware of their social position, gender, talents **and other characteristics; allows for **fair and impartial decision-making
* Rawls argued for the Liberal Position** in which everyone should have equal basic liberties
* Difference Principal in which social and economic inequalities should only exist if they benefit the most disadvantaged members of society
* Rawls proposed that an enabling state requiring progressive taxation and wealth redistribution create a more equitable society.

Question 32

Explain what Beveridge argued about the five major evils, what type of liberal belief and how did Attle try to limit them

Answer 32

• **Modern liberalism **
• Beveridge was a liberal social scientist and civil servant who advanced modern liberal ideas; provided the** foundation for Britain’s post-war welfare state**
• Argued that the five major evils that threatened society, Beveridge argued that they could only be overcome with a major extension of state provision
  1. Want = inadequacy of income + lack of basic necessities among the population
  2. Disease = **absence of adequate healthcare + medical services **for many
  3. Ignorance = lack of educational opportunities + inadequate access to high-quality education for many
  4. Squalor = poor living conditions + a lack of affordable housing
  5. Idleness = unemployment or underemployment
• Attlee aimed to limit these evils through the NHS = providing universal free healthcare for all at the point of use, **Social Security System **= providing financial assistance to many during unemployment, disability, retirement etc, **Education Reforms **= creating more schools, policies which improved access to education + made it free to all children, Housing Programs = providing adequate + affordable housing to many, over a million were built

Question 33

Explain Mill’s beliefs about how democracy would work in modern day society and what type of liberal belief it is

Answer 33

* Later classical liberalism **
*Mill sought to make the case for representative democracy, anticipating universal suffrage
* An enlarged electorate would not make decisions** for themselves but would elect representatives to make decisions for them
* Such representatives would not side with the majority but would seek to accommodate the various opinions in society, thereby producing the** broad consent of all**
* Mill was also concerned that the **majority of voters were ill-equipped to choose intelligent representatives **that would act rationally and argued that universal suffrage should be preceded by universal education
* Mill’s liberal view of a **minimal state and negative freedom **made him reluctant to sanction state intervention to provide state education

Question 34

Explain why modern liberals aren’t in favour of direct democracy

Answer 34

• Modern Liberals are not in favour of direct democracy., fearing that referendums and initiatives threaten the ‘tyranny of the majority’
• Modern liberals have even been willing to **uphold human rights at the expense of representative democracy **
• Support for the Human Rights Act (1998), transferring power from elected representatives to unelected judges and their support for supranational bodies such as the EU
• Example; Brexit referendum, 51.9% said Yes and 48.1% voted No
• This has led to the** tyranny of the majority** as there wasn’t as needed in other countries’ supermajority and a complex issue was oversimplified to the public leading to inadequate knowledge among voters regarding the issue. Further, the multifaceted issue was simplified to a yes/no vote.

Question 35

Explain what modern liberals believe about postive liberty and an enlarged state

Answer 35

• Belief in positive liberty and an enlarged state
• Friedan argues that the solutions to these problems lay in further** state regulation and legislation and, sometimes positive discrimination**
• This involved the state and other employers correcting historical imbalances by discriminating in favour of individuals from groups that had previously been discriminated against

Question 36

Explain all of Locke’s key ideas about social contract theory, limited government, and a stateless society

Answer 36

Locke (Early Classical Liberalism)
* **Social contract theory **– society, state and government are based on a theoretical voluntary agreement
* **Limited government **– that government should be limited and based on consent from below
* Locke begins with the assumption that individuals are rational entities. When offering their consent to the state, they are at the same time promoting their own self-interest. As rational entities, we fully acknowledge that our liberties are best protected via governance by the stateto uphold **basic liberties **and protect us from the threat of foreign invasion and social disorder
* Consent may be provided on a formal basis via an **election or on an informal setting as a consequence of tacit consent **

Question 37

Explain Wollstonecraft key ideas about women in terms of liberal ideas and formal equality

Answer 37

Wollstonecraft (Early Classical Liberalism)
* Reason – women are rational and independent beings capable of reason
* Formal equality – in order to be free, women should enjoy full civil liberties and be allowed to have careers
* Wollstonecraft is one of the predominant figures within the first-wave of feminism. She is also a leading figure within the branch of theory described as liberal feminism
* Wollstonecraft is best-known for her work ‘A vindication of the rights of woman’ in which she argued that both men and women should be treated equally
as rational human beings. She also claimed that women were not naturally inferior to men, but may appear to be because they’ve been denied educational opportunities
* Wollstonecraft advocated for** formal equality in which women were entitled to the same civil liberties as men**; so women would be able to experience a life of genuine liberty free from the constraints of patriarchy, being able to have careers

Question 38

Explain Mill’s key ideas about the harm principle, tolerance + the type of actions humans take + state involvement

Answer 38

John Stuart Mill (Later Classical Liberalism)
* Harm principle – that individuals should be free to do anything except harm other individuals
* Tolerance – belief that the popularity of a view does not necessarily make it correct
* Mill makes a crucial distinction between self-regarding and other-regarding actions; we should be free to pursue those actions that in no way constrain the liberty of others
* The** state (on behalf of society) is only justifying in limiting our actions** when those actions impinge upon the freedom of others
* Mill’s conception of free will flows seamlessly from his previous work on the harm principle; we are sovereign entities capable of exercising free will + we should accept responsibility for charting our own path in life

Question 39

Explain more of Locke’s key ideas about social contract theory, limited government, and a stateless society

Answer 39

Early Classical Liberalism
* Locke declared that consent could be taken as assumed from the general behaviour of the people and the absence of major social disorder
* If we do not accept the laws of the land a sanction may be imposed; if the state were to act in violation of the contract, the people are entitled to withdraw their consent
* Argued that using** force to change someone’s beliefs is irrational**; they may say that they have changed their beliefs to avoid further torture, this does
not mean they’ve changed their beliefs.
Locke’s argument is applicable towards the post-9/11 debate concerning the use of torture in relation to the ‘war against terror’
* According to Locke, a stateless society is one in which we would be devoid of freedom; only the state that can ever hope to adequately protect us from harm

Question 40

Explain Mill’s key ideas about despotism of custom, how tolerance operates in society + how to figure out the truth + facts

Answer 40

Later Classical Liberalism
* ‘Despotism of custom’, Mill warns us against the mediocrity of public opinion; believes there is a tendency to tell everyone to act in the same manner
Despotism of custom seeks to crush self-expression and is therefore contrary to the right and proper goal of a liberal society; need to facilitate “experiments in living” in order that freedom is experienced to the very full
* To** guard against the despotism of custom, we must avoid forcing our opinions on others unless we are certain of their truth**
* A liberal society is one that tolerates the full diversity of lifestyles
* To ascertain the truth, assumptions must be subject to the marketplace of ideas; essential that we play Devil’s advocate in order to establish that which holds true. In addition, Mill states that a ‘fact’ must face
the rigours of open debate
* Mill also points out that majority opinion can be wrong as the majority holds no true authority and no absolute certainty.
* Mill cites popular opinion of the past which has since been rejected by contemporary society

Question 41

Explain Mill’s key ideas about Bentham’s utilitarnism principle and his views about women in society

Answer 41

Later Classical Liberalism
* Mill departed from Bentham’s in his view of what constitutes happiness – claiming that higher pleasures are superior to the simple pursuit of pleasure. Mill adopts a more qualitative aspect to his search for the greatest happiness
* Mill was a passionate advocate of electoral reform,was a feminist. He advocated female emancipation long before the issue was on the political agenda. Mill also favoured** proportional representation long before it was a mainstream cause**

Question 42

Explain Rawls key ideas about the theory of justice, the veil of ignorance + how this scenario would build a fair society

Answer 42

Rawls (Modern Liberalism)
* Theory of justice – opinion that society must be just and guarantee each citizen a life worth living
* The veil of ignorance – a hypothetical scenario where** individuals agree on the type of society they want, from a position where they lack knowledge of their own position in society
* Veil of ignorance; requires us to place ourselves in the position of others. It also requires us to consider the danger of being born into poverty
* Rawls assumed that people would want a fairer society with adequate housing, safe neighbourhoods, a good education system and an unbiased criminal
justice system
* Society can be said to be fair when we can state that no-one would care what circumstances **we would be born into
* When given the choice, we would prefer to live in a country like Denmark rather than risk the post-code lottery that characterised his native land

Question 43

Explain Rawls key ideas about the theory of justice, original position and what this means

Answer 43

Modern Liberalism
* Rawls promoted the notion of ‘justice as fairness’; the principles of justice
are those everyone would agree to from a position of ignorance
* To create a** just society, we first need to
agree on the principles behind justice**. These can be established from his famous thought experiment
* Original position means we are all equal in our ignorance. Under these conditions, we would agree to the liberty principle (such as freedom of expression and freedom from arbitrary arrest) and the difference principle (in which inequalities are permitted provided they are positions open to all and benefit the least
advantaged within society).

Question 44

Explain Friedan’s key ideas about legal equality + opportunities for women + what stops women from advancing out of their role

Answer 44

Friedan (Modern Liberal)
* Legal equality – women are as capable as men and that oppressive laws and social views must be overturned
* Equal opportunity – women are being held back from their potential because of the** limited number of jobs that are ‘acceptable’ for women**
* Friedan is widely considered to be the mother of women’s liberation, a leading exponent within liberal feminism and the figure who instigated the second-wave of the feminist movement
* Friedan exposed the stifling boundaries placed upon women (particularly mothers and housewives) and identified the **multiple frustrations of those who felt trapped **by
the confines of social expectations

Question 45

Explain Friedan’s key ideas about why women to fufill their potential, and feminine mystique

Answer 45

Modern Liberalism
* Friedan found that very few of them had ever seen a** positive female role-model who worked outside of the home whilst having a family; found that housewives
were ‘tied to the kitchen sink’ due to the constraints of family life**
* Friedan concludes that women were afraid
to ask themselves the devastating question – “is this all?” **
* Friedan claimed that women were prevented from fulfilling their potential in life (especially in the public realm)** due to the confines of this cultural myth
* Friedan came to identify the importance of advertising in the creation of the
feminine mystique; the feminine mystique was an illusion maintained by the male-dominated advertising industry
Friedman; “the feminine mystique says that the highest value and the only commitment for women is the fulfilment of their own femininity”

Question 46

Explain Friedan’s key ideas about patriarchal society and how the state can address gender inequality

Answer 46

Modern Liberalism
* Friedan believed** passionately in the emancipation of women from the confines of a patriarchal society.
* Friedan argued that women were as capable as men** in terms of** performing any type of work or career path**
* An advocate of raising consciousness and lobbied in favour of **legislative reform to address gender inequality
* Friedan’s approach to the problems facing women typify the liberal feminist position on the path towards female emancipation**
* The political process is dominated by men, Friedan and others believe there is sufficient scope within its boundaries for women to advance the feminist position

Question 47

Explain what Conservatives mean by State of Mind and Pragmatism

Answer 47

• Conservatives don’t rely on or use a set of abtract ideological ideas - use traditions + political solutions as their guide
  Pragmatism - ‘being practical’ + doing what works
• **Practical preceeds theory **
• Decisions aren’t linked to a set of ideological principles but are instead reactionary + flexible
• They view **humans as imperfect
• Oakeshoot** - Conservatism ensures that the “cure is not worse than the disease”

Question 48

Give A02 examples of times when Conservatives have been flexible with their policies

Answer 48

1. **University Tution Fees **- in 2005 the Tories said that they wanted to scrap fees - raised to £9000 in 2011
2. Homosexuality - Thatcher introduced Section 28 (cannot promote homosexuality in schools + public office - due to AIDS + HIV) - Cameron then apolgised for Section 28 in 2009
3. May - originally a Remainer but then “getting on with the job” of negotiating Brexit
4. Sunak - originally against Rwanda Bill - decied to go ahead + enforce it - went to the Supreme Court rather than drop the matter

Question 49

Explain why Conservatives believe in the Status Quo + Tradition

Answer 49

• Strong support for traditional institutions - Monarchy, Army, Contitution, nuclear family + Union (UK)
• *Change to conserve -** status quo doesn’t have to be perfect** - changes should make society work better - for something **valuable to be preserved it had to be maintained **
• E.g - May’s emphasis on keeping the **Union together + rejecting calls for another Scottish independance referendum **
• Conservatives believe that** too much change undermines the very fabric of society **- “evoultion not revolution”
• Oakeshott - “to be Conservative is to prefer the tried to the untried”

Question 50

Explain what Conservatives believe about authority and define it

Answer 50

• Authority = recognised** right for those in power** to make decisions that others must accept
  **
  Key Beliefs
  1. Conformity is needed for social cohesion **
  2. **Gemeinsehaft (close communities)
  3. Need for intergration into a countries norms**
  4.** Opposed to multiculturism** (creates conflict - e.g **opposed to wearing religious symbols in schools**)
  5. **Authoritian stance on law + order **

Question 51

Define atomism, Noblesse Oblige, normative and laissez-faire

Answer 51

• Atomism = **Humans seek autonomy + ‘space’ **- leads to a **vague view of society **- NR view
• **Noblesse Oblige **- the ruiling class ave an obligation to rule in the interests of the enitre nation - due to their noble status
• Normative - describes how arrangements in the future should be - **not held by conservatives **
• Laissez-faire - involves allowing the **free-market to operate freely - though economic liberalism - associated with traditional conservatives + NR **

Question 52

Explain the key beliefs of Traditional Conservatism

Answer 52

• Commitment to **hierarchy + paternalism **
• Little relevance to modern day Britian - few people had the vote + linked with Edmund Burke
• Hierarchy = **neccesary for society to function **- people need to accept their place in society for **noblesse oblige **
• Evolved into one-nation conservatism

Question 53

Explain the key beliefs of One-Nation Conservatism

Answer 53

• Response to **emergence of capitalism **
• **Opposed to major radical changes in society **
• Strong support for the values which generate a sense of **national unity + social cohesion **

Role of the State:
1. Natural arbitrator to prevent chaos + anarchy **
2. Re-distribution of wealth** because the rich have a duty to the poor
3. The ‘welfare state’ is a good safety net - prevents revolution + social unrest
4. **State shouldn’t interfere too much in people’s individuals lives **

Question 54

Explain the key beliefs under the New Right

Answer 54

• Marriage of neo-liberals + neo-conservative ideas
• More right-wing than one-nation conservatism
• **Economically libertarian + socially authoritian **
• Strong law + order which emphasises traditional values
• More market led economy - less role for the state through privatisation + deregulation
• **Reduction on taxation **to allow for **‘trickle down’ **effect to occur + reduce the welfare state to tackle ‘dependancy culture’
• **Rejection of pragmatism **

Question 55

Explain New Right views on the economy

Answer 55

• The NR argues that by **disengaging from the economcy **+ allowing it to operate as it pleases the state can focus on its **purpose of providing order + security ** as Hobbes argues
• The NR believe that a** capitalist economy is prosperous** + will lead to ‘popular capitaism’ + destroy socialism - it will also fund the state to rpovide a stronger army, police + other defensive agencies

Question 56

Explain how traditional conservatism clashes with capitalism

Answer 56

• Traditional conservatives** support Keynesian economic policies which allowed the state to provide full employment **+ protected against the rise of populism
• Traditional conservatives are reluctant capitalists; capitalism supports property ownership, inequality + hierarchy but laissez-faire economics supports an optimistic view that human nature should be left alone
• Thus they support a limited form of free-market capitalism known as protectionism where state intervention where the economy is protected** against the excesses of the free-market by imposing tariffs + duties **

Question 57

Explain conservativism’s view on human nature

Answer 57

• Conservatism argues that human nature is flawed + **humans desire more freedom due to their inherent selfishness **
• Burke criticsed the idea that human nature was guided by reason alone + stresses the importance of** habit, custom + experience** - believed humans were more communal
• Conservatism’s view of human nature means that they **argue for a decisive + authoritative state to deal with human imperfection **

Question 58

Explain Hobbes key ideas on human nature, the state and economy

Answer 58

Traditional Conservative
* Very skeptical view of human nature believed that in the** state of nature humans were ‘solitary,poor, nasty, brutish and short’ before the state emerged
* Hobbes argued that the ‘natural rights’ didn’t exist **before the creation of the state
* Hobbes argued that there needed to be a **formal authority to define right + wrong + to prevent ‘natural chaos’ from ensuing **
* Believed that people would **seek a social contract with the state **- the **state would provide security + order
* Argued for the state to have autocratic power** + for this power to not be divided up
* Hobbes believed that for the economy to function it requires **order that the strong state would provide **

Question 59

Explain Burke’s key ideas on human nature, society and economy

Answer 59

Traditional Conservative
* Believed that humans were imperfect, that they didn’t act with reason + that there was a gap between what people wanted + could achieve **
* Burke also believed that society was like a plant (organicism) + so that we should keep the status quo + any changes made should be careful + subtle **
* Burke believed that society should be looked at in the reality of what it is (empiricism) + not look at the ideals of what society could be
* Burke also believed that society is made up of **‘little plattons’ (localism) - which would be largely self-regulating + offer support to their members (nullify the negatives of human nature**)
* Burke supported the existence of elites in society, dismissed equality + argued for **paternalism instead **
* Burke supported free market economics + **laissez-faire economics **

Question 60

Explain Oakeshott’s key ideas about the economy, human nature and society

Answer 60

One-Nation Conservative
* Believed that humans were terrible but faliable + that creating a perfect society would be impossible but there was the possibility for improvement
* Favoured a** society of local communities **
* Believed the economy needed to be moderated by the state as otherwise they would be volitile
* Proposed an empirical approach to politics + that **pragmatic trial + error were the best way to achieve results **
* Oakeshott belived that the state’s job is to prevent bad not to create good - the state should **embrace routine + prevent disaster **

Question 61

Explain Rand’s key ideas on human nature, sociey, the state and the economy

Answer 61

New Right
* Believed that individuals were the key to the nations success - believed in **‘objectivism’ meaning that people were guided by self-interest **
* Selfishness lead to a better society as everyone strives to be better and achieve self realisation we all help each other
* Rand saw society in terms of atomism - meaning that it’s a collection of individuals - society doesn’t exist as an entity
* Argued for the rolling back of the state + for significant tax cuts - argued for small strong state to have law + order
* Rand wanted **complete freedom in the market **
* Rand was a libertarian economically + on social issues (abortion, homosexuality)

Question 62

Explain Nozick’s key ideas on human nature, sociey, the state and the economy

Answer 62

New Right
* Nozick had a** positive view of human nature **belived that **individuals can achieve their full potential **
* Believed the growth of the state was a great threat to individual freedom + that the welfare state was causing a dependacy culture
* Argued for a minarchist state - outsource public services to private companies ‘tax for the most part is theft’ + formal authority is needed
* Argued that society pre-dated the state + that in **society self-sufficient communities would arise **
* Believed the **state should leave people alone economically **but was a liberal on social issues