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PSY1005S - Test 2 > Consciousness > Flashcards

Consciousness Flashcards

1
Q

What is consciousness?

A

It is a cognitive neuroscience that monitors the ways in which attention is spread out. It has a lot to do with a person’s awareness, perceptions and memories.

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2
Q

How is consciousness understood?

A

Consciousness exists on a spectrum, where waking consciousness is on one end and altered stages of consciousness is on the other end.

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3
Q

What are examples of altered stages of consciousness?

A

Some examples of altered stages of consciousness include day-dreaming, the use of drugs, meditation, hypnosis and sleep.

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4
Q

How is healthy sleep in adults in understood?

A

Sleep in adults is measured using something known as circadian rhythms which assess the sleep wake cycles of an individual

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5
Q

How does the melatonin cycle work?

A

The melatonin cycle occurs when light enters our eyes. Once our eyes are shut the SCN realises that there is no light → Melatonin is then used to initiate sleep after it is secreted from the pineal gland (however melatonin is not involved in the process of sleep)

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6
Q

What is the purpose of sleep?

A

Sleep is necessary for restoration purposes, memory consolidation and emotional regulation.

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7
Q

How is sleep categorized?

A

REM (Rapid Eye Movement) and NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement)

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8
Q

What is Rapid Eye Movement?

A

REM sleep is an active type of sleep which usually consists of daydreaming and the voluntary muscles are inhibited.

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9
Q

What is Non-Rapid Eye Movement?

A

NREM sleep is a deeper kind of sleep that is more restful which allows for individuals to move around more freely.

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10
Q

What stages of sleep that make up a regular sleep cycle?

A

N1, N2, N3 and REM

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11
Q

What happens during N1?

A

1) In this stage light sleep occurs by slowing down brain wave activity.
2) Daydreaming or hallucinations can happen.
3) Theta waves increase and alpha waves fall away.

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12
Q

What happens during N2?

A

1) During this stage deeper sleep occurs and the body’s temperature drops, heart rate increases and breathing becomes shallow and irregular
2) Brain waves slow down, and theta brain waves occur, which can be read on an EEG machine as spindles.
3) Sleep spindles occur when memories are transferred from short-term memory into long-term memory.

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13
Q

What happens during N3?

A

1) The lowest and deepest brain waves occur. This deep sleep is known as slow-wave sleep (SWS)
2) Delta waves are mostly identified in this stage.
3) The body is at its lowest state of function.

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14
Q

What actions classify REM sleep?

A

1) During REM sleep the body’s temperature increases.
2) An individual’s eyes tend to move rapidly.
3) Heart rate increases
4) Vivid dreams occur in this state.

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15
Q

What are the functions of NREM sleep?

A

Memory traces are redistributed from the hippocampal networks to the neocortex. Physical restoration and mood restoration occur as a result of NREM sleep.

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16
Q

What are the functions of REM sleep?

A

REM sleep leads to Long term potential (LTP) which involves the long lasting strengthening of synaptic connections. Dreaming and Restoration of brain functions also occur as a result of REM sleep.

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17
Q

What impacts does poor sleep have on a person?

A

Poor sleep can cause physical and cognitive impairments in function. With examples including chronic lung disease, arthritis and depression.

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18
Q

What are chronotypes?

A

Chronotypes determine the times when people usually go to sleep.

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19
Q

What is Narcolepsy?

A

Narcolepsy is a chronic sleep disorder which is characterised by disturbances in the brain’s regulation of sleep-wake cycles. Narcolepsy can be described as sleep seizures in which a person suddenly slips into REM which can cause them to lose muscle tone (cataplexy).

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20
Q

What are the 4 hallmark symptoms which Narcolepsy is defined by?

A

Narcolepsy is often defined by
1) Excessive daytime sleepiness
2) Cataplexy
3) Sleep paralysis
4) Hypnagogic
hallucinations

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21
Q

What is insomnia?

A

Insomnia is described as the inability to go to sleep or stay asleep. This can be treated with medication, but it may result in the chronic use of drugs.

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22
Q

How can Insomnia be treated?

A

Insomnia can be treated using Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for Insomnia, known as (CBT-I).

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23
Q

What is CBT-I?

A

CBT-I is a method used to treat insomnia making use of various strategies such as stimulus control, sleep consolidation, sleep hygiene, relaxation and cognitive therapy.

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24
Q

What is stimulus control?

A

Stimulus control involves creating an atmosphere that makes it easier for people to sleep. This includes only going to bed when feeling sleepy, creating a cool atmosphere with no light to make it easier to sleep and not doing any activities whilst in bed.

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25
Q

What is sleep consolidation?

A

Sleep consolidation calculates the actual amount of hours a person spends asleep as opposed to the number of hours a person spends in bed.

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26
Q

What is sleep hygiene?

A

Sleep hygiene takes pre-bedtime environments and behaviours into consideration such as avoiding or omitting caffeine or nicotine intake before bed and screen time in order to improve sleep habits and quality.

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27
Q

What is relaxation?

A

Relaxation involves various techniques such as slow breathing exercises and progress relaxation to improve insomnia.

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28
Q

What is cognitive therapy?

A

Cognitive therapy involves challenging anxious thoughts about sleep in order to reduce stress.

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29
Q

What is a nightmare?

A

Nightmares occur during REM sleep, as a result of underlying dreams being able to manifest into nightmares. Nightmares tend to affect children or people who suffer from PTSD.

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30
Q

What is a night terror?

A

A night terror occurs during N3 and has little dream recall after waking up.

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31
Q

What is the difference between a nightmare and night terror?

A

Nightmares:
- Occur during REM sleep
- Memory recollection of the nightmare after a person wakes up.
Night terrors:
- Occur during N3
- There is little recall of the dream after waking up.

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32
Q

What is somnambulism?

A

Somnambulism is a sleep disorder which is more commonly known as sleepwalking which occurs during N3. Sleep deprivation has been found to increase the chances of sleepwalking which commonly occurs in children which makes it harder to wake a person up.

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33
Q

What is REM behaviour disorder?

A

REM behaviour disorder is a sleep disorder which commonly affects elderly people in which they may tend to act out their dreams.

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34
Q

What is a psychoactive substance?

A

It is a chemical substance that alters a person’s thinking and perception, memory or a combination of those abilities.

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35
Q

What is substance use?

A

Substance use includes the use of any psychoactive substance, regardless of the frequency or problems associated with the substance

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36
Q

Explain substance abuse

A

Substance abuse involves the excessive use of a substance that exceeds the healthy usage threshold of that drug

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37
Q

What does it mean to have a substance addiction?

A

A substance addiction involves having a maladaptive pattern of drug use with poor social and health consequences. This involves the compulsive and uncontrollable need to use the substance

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38
Q

What is substance dependence?

A

Substance dependence is defined as the physical or psychological reliance on a substance regardless of the significant substance-related consequences. A substance dependence can occur when medical substances are used recreationally. Dependence can be described in terms of four dependence mechanisms.

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39
Q

What is a physical dependence?

A

Physical accustomation to a drug to the point where the body adjusts the way it functions in accordance to the drug. Only certain drugs can elicit physical dependency, however all drugs can cause psychological dependence.

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40
Q

What is a psychological dependence?

A

A psychological dependence is best described as an emotional and cognitive reliance on a substance in order to achieve a desired psychological state.

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41
Q

What are the 4 mechanisms of physical dependence?

A
  • Neurotransmitter activation
  • Drug tolerance
  • Withdrawal symptoms
  • Negative reinforcement
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42
Q

Explain neurotransmitter activation?

A

Drug use often releases dopamine in the brain using the mesolimbic pathway. This triggers something known as the reward pathway which triggers feelings of pleasure. Over time the brain decreases the number of synaptic dopamine receptors.

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43
Q

What is drug tolerance?

A

Drug tolerance occurs when higher doses of a drug need to be used in order to achieve the same effect as when a person began using the drug. This is because the dopamine receptors decrease the longer the drug is used.

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44
Q

Define withdrawal symptoms

A

Drug withdrawals occur when a person stops using a drug and their body will try to adjust to the absence of that drug. The severity of substance withdrawals are dependent on the dosage and duration of use and individual differences.

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45
Q

What are symptoms of drug withdrawals?

A

Symptoms of withdrawal include experiencing headaches, nausea, being easily irritable, seizures and increased BP.

46
Q

What is negative reinforcement?

A

Users will take more of a drug in order to stop the feelings and symptoms of drug withdrawal.

47
Q

What are the 4 psychological mechanisms?

A
  • Psychological cravings
  • Classical conditioning
  • Cognitive & Emotional Aspects
  • Positive Reinforcement
48
Q

What are psychological cravings?

A

Psychological cravings are described as the desire to indulge in the use of drugs with the knowledge and anticipation of the pleasurable effects of using the drug. Psychological cravings can be triggered by various cues, emotional and social factors.

49
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

Classical conditioning refers to cues that a person has been conditioned to associate with a certain substance because of repeated pairing. Eg. A place + drug use = classical conditioning. When these cues are present it is harder to resist.

50
Q

What are the cognitive and emotional aspects?

A

The cognitive aspects refer to cognitive processes that are related to the perceived benefits of drug use. It is possible for users to have emotional attachments to the effects of a drug, this occurs as result of a person’s belief that they need the drug for normal functioning.

51
Q

What is positive reinforcement?

A

Positive reinforcement occurs when users increase the amount of the drug that they use in order to feel the same rewarding feeling as they did before.

52
Q

What are the four categories of psychoactive drugs?

A

Stimulants, Depressants, Hallucinogens and Opioids.

53
Q

What is the difference between substance dependence and addiction?

A

Addiction is comprised of maladaptive uncontrollable patterns whereas dependence focuses more on a reliance.

54
Q

How is substance abuse understood?

A

Substance use exists on a spectrum from experimentation → to a full blown substance use disorder

55
Q

What is a substance use disorder (SUD)?

A

SUDs refer to problematic behaviours that are related to the use of a substance. It is a diagnosable according to the DSM-V and is described as a range of problematic behaviours, by encompassing both the abuse and dependence on the substance.

56
Q

Name two types of substance use

A

medical and recreational substance use

57
Q

What are examples of medical substances?

A

Common examples of medical substances include painkillers, sleep and anxiety medication and antidepressents.

58
Q

What are examples of recreational substances?

A

Caffeine, Nicotine and Cannabis.

59
Q

What are some of the consequences of SUDs?

A
  • Physical health problems
  • Dependence and addiction
  • Cognitive Impairment
  • Mental health problems - substances can trigger or exaggerate existing mental disorders, or psychosis.
  • Overdose and death
  • Social functioning impacts - can impact families
60
Q

What are some of the factors that increase the risk of substance use?

A
  • Family influence
  • Biological factors
  • Psychological factors
  • Cultural factors
  • Socioeconomic factors
61
Q

Describe family influence

A

Adolescents are at an increased risk level being around dysfunctional families. Dysfunctional families are categorized by factors that include drug use, criminal behaviour or violence which make it more likely for a person to develop a substance abuse disorder. When children are not monitored they aren’t able to understand the consequences of exposing them to substances early on.

62
Q

How can the risk of SUD in adolescents be controlled?

A

Family monitoring can result in safer substance use due to the presence of a positive role model.

63
Q

Describe Biological factors

A

There are people who experience a biological predisposition to substance use disorders. The way that this works is that some people can feel a greater sense of reward after indulging in a substance in comparison to others. This is related to the susceptibility to addiction.

64
Q

What is neuroadaptation?

A

Neuroadaptation is the way that the brain compensates for adjustments in it. When a person takes a substance and has withdrawals from it, they are likely to indulge in that substance again, which does not allow the brain to compensate for levels of dopamine that the brain naturally produces.

65
Q

Describe the psychological factors that increase the risk of developing a SUD.

A

Some people may experience novelty also known as sensation seeking or impulsivity which can cause them to turn to the use of substances. People who have low self-esteem and poor psychosocial skills are also affected by this. People who have mental disorders may indulge in the use of substances as a way to cope with their mental disorders.

66
Q

Describe the cultural factors that increase the risk of developing SUDs

A

There are historical consequences that are associated with the drinking culture in South Africa currently with an example being the dop system. It is important to acknowledge the fact that various cultures have different approaches towards substance abuse and may even use substances in their practices.

67
Q

Describe the socioeconomic factors that increase the risk of SUDs

A

Unemployment, criminal activity, low education attainment, high rates of trauma and violence are factors that may cause a person to make use of substances.

68
Q

What are the social and environmental factors that may influence substance use?

A
  • Peer Influence
  • Media Exposure
  • Accessibility and availability
  • Social pressures.
69
Q

Define peer influence

A

Peer pressure to use substances often occurs during adolescence.

70
Q

Define media exposure

A

Advertising and glamorising substances makes it more likely for people to make use of substances.

71
Q

Define accessibility and availability

A

Accessibility and availability involve having easy access to substances within an environment which may sometimes be prohibited for people of a certain age.

72
Q

Define social pressure

A

It is similar to peer pressure, but it places more influence on the external factors and pressures that may influence a person to engage with the use of substances.

73
Q

What purpose do stimulants serve?

A

Stimulants increase the functioning of the Central Nervous System by activating it and the sympathetic nervous system. They can decrease appetite, increase blood pressure, heart rate and arousal and alertness.

74
Q

What are common examples of stimulants?

A

Cocaine, amphetamines and caffeine.

75
Q

What are the long term effects of using stimulants?

A

The long term effects of stimulants include triggered underlying mental health issues, experiencing sleep difficulties and cognitive impairment. These kinds of drugs have an impact on neurotransmitters which are important for mood regulation, attention span, reward, pleasure and motivation.

76
Q

What are depressants?

A

Depressants cause issues that involve impaired motor skills and the lack of coordination. Other short term effects include increased feelings of sedation or relaxation, reduced reaction time and slowed thinking processes.

77
Q

What are common examples of depressants?

A

Alcohol, benzodiazepines and barbiturates.

78
Q

What are the long-term consequences of using depressants?

A

The long-term consequences of using depressants include experiencing depressive symptoms, sleep difficulties, cognitive impairment such as dementia and other physical withdrawal effects.

79
Q

What are hallucinogens?

A

Drugs that alter perceptions, causing changes in the way that a person perceives the world and distorts sensation interpretation, which is considered a form of sensory change. Experiencing hallucinations includes seeing or hearing things that are not really there.

80
Q

What are the consequences of using hallucinogens?

A

The physical effects of hallucinogens include increased body temperature, loss of appetite and numbness. The long- term consequences include sleep difficulties, cognitive impairment, Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder (HPPD).

81
Q

What are common examples of hallucinogens?

A

LSD and psilocybin.

82
Q

What are opioids?

A

The activation of opioid receptors help inhibit the transmission of pain signals and have a similar effect as depressants.

83
Q

What are the long term consequences of using opioids?

A

The physical effects of opioids include euphoria, relaxation, increased drowsiness and pain relief. Opioids can also cause respiratory depression, increased pain sensitivity and cognitive impairment which typically affects the white matter in the brain.

84
Q

What is alcohol (depressant)?

A

Alcohol is often used as a depressant, that has an effect on dopamine, because they have an affect on GABA receptors in the brain. It can cause psychological and physical dependence after long term use. Alcohol is a substance that is derived from the fermentation of various plant materials.

85
Q

What are the long term consequences of using alcohol substances?

A

Chronological alcohol abuse can lead to long terms consequences such liver damage, vitamin B12 deficiency and a weakened immune function.

86
Q

What is cannabis (stimulant or depressant)?

A

It is a natural substance which comes from the flowers and leaves of a hemp plant. The psychoactive ingredient in this drug is THC, tetrahydrocannabinol.

87
Q

What does THC stand for?

A

Tetrahydrocannabinol

88
Q

In what forms is cannabis commonly found?

A

Cannabis can is commonly found and classified in 2 categories. Sativa is a stimulant strain of cannabis, whereas Indica is the depressant strain.

89
Q

What are some of the long term consequences of using cannabis?

A

Mild intoxication of cannabis can cause sensory distortion and high doses of it can cause hallucinations, delusions, paranoia and a decrease in quick decision-making. The use of cannabis for adolescents can affect education and cause mental health issues and delay normal processes such as the development of the front lobe. Using cannabis can also cause damage to white matter which can cause slow thinking, reduced concentration and reaction and difficulties in memory.

90
Q

What is nicotine (stimulant)?

A

Nicotine is a highly addictive substance which can cause physical and psychological dependence. It is a stimulant that increases BP, arousal, adrenaline, dopamine and concentration.

91
Q

What are common examples of nicotine?

A

Cigarettes, e-cigarettes and vapes.

92
Q

What are the consequences of using nicotine?

A

The dangers of nicotine, through the form of smoking cigarettes have more deaths than combined MVA (motor vehicle accidents), alcohol, cocaine, heroin abuse, AIDS, suicide and homicide, essentially speaking smoking has a high death rate. Smoking nicotine substances derived from tobacco plants can contribute to lung cancer and other lung issues.

93
Q

What are amphetamines (stimulants)?

A

These kinds of drugs cause sympathetic activation, by causing increased energy and reduced appetite. They also increase concentration but may result in cardiovascular issues. Amphetamines are classified as stimulants that affect the CNS, and can cause both psychological and physical dependence.

94
Q

What are the consequences of using amphetamines?

A

The long term side effects of amphetamines include nausea, vomiting, hypertension, stroke and psychosis.

95
Q

What are common examples of amphetamines?

A

Prescribed medications that fall under this class include Benzedrine, Methedrine, Adderall and Vyvanse which are substances that have their distribution controlled because of how highly addictive they are. There are recreational variations such as crystal meth (Tik) which cause more extreme reactions because they are stronger stimulants meaning that they have a stronger effect of the CNS in comparison to amphetamines.

96
Q

What is cocaine (stimulant)?

A

Cocaine is a highly addictive stimulant that is derived from coca leaves that causes a strong but short-lived euphoric high. Cocaine has a high risk of both physical and psychological dependence after continued use because it is highly addictive. Cocaine increases levels of dopamine in the brain by causing feelings of euphoria and alertness.

97
Q

What are the long term consequences of using cocaine?

A

The long term effects of cocaine use include hypertension, increased heart rate and body temperature which may lead to heart attacks or strokes. The mental health impacts of using cocaine include paranoia, hallucinations and anxiety especially after frequent use.

98
Q

What are tranquilizers (depressants)?

A

Tranquilizers are depressants which affect GABA by enhancing its effects thereby slowing down the processes of the CNS.

99
Q

What are examples of tranquilizers?

A

Barbiturates can be found in medication meant to stop a person from having seizures, these are categorised as major forms of tranquilizers. Minor examples of tranquilizers include benzodiazepines AKA benzos with examples including Xanax and Valium.

100
Q

What are the consequences of using tranquilizers?

A

Tranquilizers have calming sedative effects which can cause reduced levels of anxiety and muscle tension, drowsiness and impaired concentration. Pairing tranquilizers with alcohol can cause a person to overdose as a result of cardiac arrest and halting of respiratory function.

101
Q

What are opioids and opiates?

A

Opioids refer to a broader category of substances that include both natural opiates and synthetic as well as semi-synthetic drugs that cat as opioid receptors. Opiates are naturally derived compounds from the opium poppy flower. The way that the brain becomes bonded to the brain’s opioid receptors is by mimicking the actions of endorphins causing pain relief, relaxation, euphoria and drowsiness.

102
Q

What are examples of opioids and opiates?

A

Morphine is a medically prescribed substance that comes from the opium plant which is used to control severe pain. Heroin on the other hand is the recreational derivative of morphine which has a more intense impact on the CNS.

103
Q

What is the difference between an opioid and opiate?

A

An opiate refers to a drug that is naturally derived from the opium poppy flower, whereas the term opioid is used to broadly describe drugs that are created from opiates.

104
Q

What are the long term effects of using opioids and opiates?

A

The long term effects of these substances include lowered pain tolerance and sensitivity after prolonged use. Hormonal imbalances, mental health difficulties and respiratory issues. Interactions with other drugs under the influence of opioids can cause death.

105
Q

What is MDMA (Ecstacy)?

A

MDMA is classified as a stimulant and a mild hallucinogen. The neurotoxicity caused by MDMA can cause a person to become severely depressed as it known to provide a person with a short-term sense of euphoria, high blood pressure levels, anxiety and altered dehydration. It affects areas of the brain that are involved with memory and attention.

106
Q

What is the scientific name for MDMA?

A

3-4, methylenedioxymethamphetamine

107
Q

What are the long term consequences of using MDMA?

A

Use of this substance can cause a person to experience mood disorders such as depression, anxiety and overall serotonin depletion. 3-4, methylenedioxymethamphetamine in come cases can cause death.

108
Q

What is Nyaope?

A

Nyaope is a drug that is unique to South Africa that is made up of mixture of low-grade drugs that can be acquired in households. It is made up of heroin, marijuana, rat poison, drain cleaner and ARVs (Antiretroviral treatments).

109
Q

What are the long term consequences of using Nyaope?

A

The consequences of using Nyaope include erectile dysfunction, infection, depression, mood swings and hallucinations. Nyaope can have a damaging impact on socio-economic factors and addiction.

110
Q

What is REM rebound NOT?

A

REM is not a sleep disorder

PSY1005S - Test 2 (4 decks)

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