Consciousness Flashcards
1
Q
Define Consciousness?
Cognitive Neuroscience Definition
A
consciousness is generated by a set of action potentials in the communication amongst neurons just sufficient to produce a specific perception, memory or experience in our awareness
2
Q
Define Consciousness?
Useful definition
A
consciousness is your awareness of everything around you and inside your own head at any time, including your thoughts and feelings, which you use to organise your behaviour
3
Q
Describe the melatonin cycle?
A
light enters retina -> down optic tract into hypothalamus -> suprachiasmatic nucleus and tells our pineal gland -> secrete melatonin
Sunlight inhibits
Moonlight stimulates
4
Q
Describe the cyclic nature of the sleep stages?
A
N1 -> N2 -> N3 -> N2 -> REM -> back to N1
beginning of night short wave sleep is longer and REM is shorter and then it changes around as the night goes on
5
Q
N1 Description
A
-brain waves slow down
-some dreaming and hallucinations
-hypnic jerks
-theta waves increase + alpha waves fall
away
6
Q
N2 description
A
- deeper sleep
- temp + heart rate decrease
- breathing shallow and irregular
- brain waves slow down
- mostly theta waves
- sleep spindles present on EEG
7
Q
N3 description
A
- deep sleep
- slowest + deepest brain waves
- lowest lvl of body functioning
- mostly delta waves
- growth hormone released- NB for children
8
Q
REM sleep description
A
- body temp. inc.
- eyes move rapidly
- HR inc.
-Beta brain waves mostly - vivid, detailed, long, emotional, bizarre
dreams
9
Q
functions of NREM3 sleep
A
growth, muscle repair, immunity, memory consolidation
10
Q
functions of REM sleep
A
processing emotions and learning
11
Q
brain waves when awake
A
beta
12
Q
as you get drowsy these
brain waves decrease
A
alpha
13
Q
N1 brain waves
A
theta waves inc. + replace alpha waves
14
Q
N2 brain waves
A
sleep spindles, theta waves
15
Q
N3 brain waves
A
delta waves- slowest
16
Q
Name the REM sleep waves?
A
beta + gamma rays- paradoxical sleep
17
Q
Short wave sleep brain (SWS)
and body function
A
-redistribution of memory traces from the hippocampal networks to the neocortex
- weakly potentiated synapses are
eliminated
- physical restoration of tissues, muscles,
bones, immune system
-mood regulation, mood disorders can be
present when sleep is poor
18
Q
REM sleep brain and body
function
A
- long term potentiation: long lasting
strengthening of synaptic connections and memory consolidation - dreaming: psychological functions, problem solving and emotional processing
- restoration of brain function
19
Q
List of sleep disorders
A
-Nightmares
-Night terrors
-Somnambulism
-Insomnia
-Obstructive sleep apnea
-Narcolepsy
-Rem Behavior disorder
20
Q
Nightmares
A
- distressing + vivid dream that elicits strong negative emotions such as fear, anxiety or terror, often accompanies by physiological responses like inc. heart rate, sweating + arousal from sleep
- decreases from child to adulthood,
- common in people with PTSD and those with other mental disorders
21
Q
Night terrors
A
episode of intense fear/terror specifically
during non-REM sleep (stage 3)
-little dream recall, panic, most common in children but rare overall
22
Q
Describe Somnambulism?
A
a sleep disorder characterised by episodes of complex motor activity ,behaviors’, such as walking, performing
tasks, typically during N3 deep sleep stages
Facts:
-hereditary
-commonly no memory of episode
-sleep deprivation inc. chances
-most common in children (20%) and boys more than girls
23
Q
Insomnia
3 Characteristics
A
- Inability to fall asleep
- Stay asleep or
- Having very poor sleep
-can be primary or secondary to stress, anxiety, diet or behavior
-can be treated with medication but there are L-Term effects of benzo/drug use
-Best treated with CBT-I
24
Q
CBT-I 5 methods for
treatment
A
1- Stimulus control: No activities in bed xcept sleep, only bed when tired, no naps, leave bed if unable to sleep after 20 mins
2- Sleep consolidation: go to bed so you
sleep for enough hours
3- Sleep hygiene: pre-bedtime behavior and environment, avoid caffeine, nicotine,
stimulating activities + screen time
4- Relaxation: Slow deep breathing,
progressive relaxation, mindfulness
5- Cognitive therapy: challenge anxious
thought about sleep, keep a journal
25
Obstructive sleep apnoea
-repetitive episodes of partial or complete upper airway obstruction during sleep, leading to interruptions in breathing and sleep pattern disruptions
FACTS:
-Hypopnoea- little obstruction
-Typically during REM, not breathe then gasp
-fragmented sleep even if unaware=
sleepiness during the day
- recurring obstructions = oxygen
desaturation, carbon dioxide increase,
impact overall brain and body functioning
- associated with cognitive impairment
because of oxygen deprivation and sleep
disturbance
-most common in overweight men and
s/times normal children
26
Treatment of obstructive
sleep apnoea
continuous positive airway pressure device
(CPAP)
27
Desribe Narcolepsy?
Chronic neurological disorder characterized by **disturbances** in the brains *regulation* of *sleep wake cycles*
Facts:
- with or without cataplexy- sudden
loss/dec. in muscle tone
-linked to a decrease in *hypocretin* which is linked to *serotonin*
28
4 hallmark symptoms of
narcolepsy
1- excessive daytime sleepiness
2- cataplexy
3- sleep paralysis- inability to move when
awake- body thinks in REM
4- hypoagogic hallucinations- as you drift
off to sleep you have hallucinations
29
# lack of
REM behavior disorder
lack of *muscle paralysis* during REM sleep + acting out dreams
- most common in elderly and a precursor to parkinsons sometimes
30
Psychoactive drugs
Chemical substance that alters thinking,
perception, memory or some combination of those abilities
31
Substance use definition
use of any psychoactive substance
regardless of frequency or problems
associated with its use
32
Substance abuse
definition
*Excessive or improper use* exceeding healthy usage
33
Substance addiction
definition
*maladaptive pattern of use* with poor social
and health consequences
34
Substance dependence
definition
A cluster of physical and or psychological
symptoms indicating that a person
compulsively continues to use a substance despite significant substance related problems, usually occurs with addiction
35
Substance use-disorder
according to the DSM-V
Range of problematic behaviors and
symptoms related to the use of drugs or
alcohol, encompasses both substance abuse and substance dependence
36
Name the consequences of SUD?
**Consequences :**
**+ Physical health problems**
Medical complications that arise from chronic substance use
Cardiovascular issues for someone who eg. takes a lot of methamphetamines
Lung disease from someone who ea. smokes
**+ mental health problems**
Increase risk of comorbid psychiatric disorders
Eg. depression and psychosis
**+ dependence and addiction**
Escalating substance use with a Strong urge to get more drugs despite the consequences
**+ overdose and death**
Overdose and potential death do to toxicity of the substance
**+ cognitive impairment**
Deficits in memory, attention and decision making due to drug effects on the brain
**+ social functioning impacts**
Disruptions to relationships, work, education and broader social functioning
37
Familial influence
| INCREASED AND DECREASED RISK
Increased risk:
- *Dysfunction, drug use, criminal behavior, negative life events, conflict, and marital problems* can all contribute to substance use in families.
- Poor parental monitoring and *permissiveness* can also contribute to substance use.
Decreased risk:
- Establish **family rules** and **parental monitoring **to ensure children's safety.
- Have **role models** who demonstrate responsible and safe substance use.
38
Bio factors
- Genetic predisposition to addiction -
sensitivity to the rewarding effects and
vulnerability to developing dependence
- Neuro adaptation- compensatory
adjustments of the brain are genetically
determined
39
Psychological factors
Personality traits- sensation
seeking/impulsive
Low self esteem
poor psychosocial skills
mental disorders and psychiatric problems
40
Cultural factors
Historical factors- in SA the dop system
Different attitudes and cultural practices
involving substances e.g. ayahuasca in South
American tribes
Symbolic or ritual use
41
Socio-eco factors
Unemployment
Criminal behavior
Low education
High rates of trauma and violence
Social inequalities and discrimination
42
Describe the Social and environmental
factors of Substance Use?
* Peer influence- social pressure-
norms/traditions
* Media exposure and glamorizing of
substance use
* Accessibility and availability to substances
43
Dependence mechanisms
Physical dependence
Psychological dependence
44
Dependence definition
Condition where users of psychoactive
substances develop a strong reliance on and craving for the drug despite the often serious negative consequences of continued use
45
Define Physical dependence?
*Physiological adaptations* that occur in
response to repeated substance use, the
body *adjusts its functioning* and begins to
*crave the drug*.
46
Mechanisms of physical
dependence full
descriptions
* **Neurotransmitter activation**: Drug use
releases dopamine in the *mesolimbic
pathway* of the brain, the *reward pathway* is *triggered* and the user feels *pleasure*, **in response**, the brain *decreases the number of synaptic dopamine receptors* in the brain and drug tolerance develops
* **Drug tolerance**: Higher doses of the drug
are required to achieve the same effect due to the decrease in dopamine receptors
* **Withdrawal symptoms**: Drug stopped/removed/reduced- body tries to
adjust to the absence of it
e.g. headache, nausea, irritability, severe
pain, shaking, increased BP, seizures
* **Negative reinforcement**- to stop the
negative feelings and symptoms associated with withdrawal the user takes more of the drug, which removes the negative symptoms, thus reinforcing the drug use.
47
list of mechanisms of
physical dependence
- Neurotransmitter activation
- Drug tolerance
- Withdrawal symptoms
- Negative reinforcement
48
Psychological
dependence
*Emotional and cognitive reliance* on a
substance to achieve a desired
psychological state, associated with a
feeling or belief that the user needs the
drug, only certain drugs cause Physical
dependence but ALL can cause
psychological.
- Because there are no withdrawal symptoms this dependence can last forever
49
List of mechanisms of
psychological
dependence
- Psychological cravings
- Classical conditioning
- Cognitive and45 emotional aspects
- Positive reinforcement
50
Name the mechanisms of
psychological
dependence and describe how it works?
| Conditioning
**- Psychological cravings**- Desire to use in anticipation of the pleasurable effects, can be triggered by cues and emotional or social factors
**- Classical conditioning**- conditioned cues or triggers become associated with substance use due to repeated pairing, when these cues are present it becomes harder to resist using
**- Cognitive and emotional aspects-**
Cognitive processes related to the perceived benefits of use, emotional attachment to the effects, belief that one
requires the drug for normal functioning ->
POSITIVE reinforcement
**- Positive reinforcement**- increased use to feel same rewarding sensation as before
51
4 categories of
psychoactive drugs
stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens,
opioids
52
Stimulant effects, examples, Neurotransmitters involved and long term consequences.
Stimulant effects on the
body:
- Decreased appetite
- Inc. heart rate
- Inc. Blood pressure
- Inc. arousal and alertness
- Inc. CNS and PNS
Examples of stimulants caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines and nicotine
Neurotransmitters involved with stimulants:
dopamine and norepinephrine
- involved in mood regulation, attn, reward and pleasure and motivation
Long term consequences of stimulant use (not including cocaine)
- Addiction and dependence (BOTH psych
and phys)
- Mental health- anxiety, irritability, paranoia, schizo
- Cognitive impairment- neg. impact on
memory, concentration, cognitive
functioning
- Sleep disruption
- Insomnia
- Cardiovascular issues- inc. heart rate and bp may persist even after stopping use
53
Depressamts effect, examples, Long Term Effects and Neurotransmitters
Depressants effect on the
body
- Impaired motor skills and coordination
- increased sedation and relaxation
- reduced reaction times and slower thinking
- synergistic effects with other depressants can lead to OD
- Decrease nervous system activation
- Enhances GABA neurotransmitters which reduces neuronal firing
Examples of depressants alcohol, benzodiazepines, and barbiturates
Long term effects of depressant use
- Addiction and dependence (BOTH psych
and phys)
- *Depressive symptoms*- withdrawal
- *Cognitive impairment*- neg. impact on
memory, reduced attention
- *Sleep disruption*- insomnia
- *Physical*- sexual dysfunction, withdrawals can be severe and life-threatening
Neurotransmitter involved
with depressants
GABA
54
Hallucinogens effects, examples, Long term effects and Neurotransmitters
Hallucinogens effects on the body
- Altered perception
- Hallucinations
- Sensory changes and distortions
- Profound insight or distress
- *Physical effects* - inc body temp, appetite loss, numbness
Examples of hallucinogens
LSD, psilocybin
Long term consequences
of hallucinogens
- Known to trigger underlying mental health issues
- *Cognitive impairments*- difficulty
focusing/paying attn
- *Hallucinogen persisting perception
disorder (HPPD)*- changes in sensory
perception persist after drug worn off
- *Potential sleep disruption*- insomnia and sleep cycle disruptions
Neurotransmitter involved
with hallucinogens
Serotonin- signaling disrupted in the brain, inc. in certain areas causes hallucinations
55
Opiods effects, examples, Long term effects and Neurotransmitters
Opioids effect on the
body
- Analgesia (pain relief)
- Euphoria and relaxation
- Increased drowsiness and sedation
- Can cause respiratory depression-
breathing rate + depth dec.
- Similar effects to depressants but different
mechanism
Neurotransmitter receptor
involved in opioid use
- Activated opioid receptors which inhibit
the pain signal transmission
Examples of opioids Morphine, Codeine, Heroin, Tramadol
Long- term consequences of opioid use
- *Sleep disruption*- insomnia and sleep
apnea and nightmares
- Mood changes, depression, anxiety,
irritability
- *Cog. impairment* - slowed thinking, conc.
difficulties, impaired judgement
- Abnormal pain sensitivity, increased when not on them
- High potential for physical dependence
and overdose
56
Alchohol classification, neurotransmitter and long term effects.
Alcohol : comes from the fermentation and distillation of plant materials.
- Classified as a depressant that affects GABA receptors in the brain.
- Can lead to physical and psychological dependence with long-term
use.
Alcohol long term effects
- Liver damage
- B12 deficiency
- Pancreatitis
- Weakened immune function
- High risk of psych and phys dep.
57
Cannabis classification, neurotransmitter and long term effects.
Cannabis classification and active ingredient
- Natural substance from flower and leaves of hemp plant
- Ingredients: THC (tetrahydrocannabinol)
- Classified as a stimulant, depressant and hallucinogen dependent on dosage
- Mild dosage = sensory distortions (stimulant)
- High dosage = hallucinations, paranoia, (hallucinogen), decrease in fast decision (depressants).
*High risk of psych dep effect cognition*-
Weed long term effects:
- slowed thinking,
- reduced reaction times,
- memory issues,
- reduced concentration and working memory capacity
58
Amphetamines classification, neurotransmitter and long term effects.
Amphetamines class and
affects
Stimulant affects CNS AND SNS
- inc. energy, dec. appetite, inc. concentration
- cardio vascular issues
- nausea, vomiting, high BP, stroke, psychosis
**Prescribed**: benzedrine, methedrine,
dexedrine
**Recreational**: tik, crystal meth- stronger effect on CNS
Negative effects include nausea, vomiting, high blood pressure, stroke, and psychosis.
Sympathetic activation results in increased energy, reduced appetite, and cardiovascular issues
59
Nicotine classification, neurotransmitter and long term effects.
**Nicotine** : Psychoactive chemicals found in tobacco plants.
- Highly addictive, leading to physical and psychological dependence.
- Acts as a stimulant, causing a slight rush.
- Increases blood pressure, arousal, adrenaline, dopamine levels, and concentration.
- Smoking-related deaths are the highest
Long-term effects of tobacco include :
- contributions to cancer,
- lung issues,
- and hypertension
*Nicotine plays a role in cancer development*
60
Cocaine class and affects
**Cocaine** : Highly addictive stimulant derived from *coca leaves.*
- (Increases dopamine levels in the brain, leading to euphoria, energy, and alertness.)
- High risk of *physical and psychological dependence* and addiction with continued use.
**- Long Term:** Causes cardiovascular effects such as constricted blood vessels, increased blood pressure, heart rate, and body temperature, potentially
resulting in heart attacks, strokes, and death.
- Mental health impact includes paranoia, hallucinations, anxiety, and other issues, especially with frequent use.
61
Tranquilizers class and
affect
Tranquillisers:
= Classified as a depressant
Two types:
Major
- Barbiturates
- Lead to overdose
- Only taking in a hospital setting
2. Minor
- Benzodiazepines
- Calm effects which reduces anxiety and muscles tension
- Enhance GABA effects in CNS
- Calming sedative effect, reduction in anxiety and muscle tension, drowsiness,
impaired concentration and coordination.
- Synergistic interaction with alcohol overdose- CNS so depressed that cardiac
and respiratory functioning ceases.
- Psych and phys dependence
*withdrawals* can cause =
- anxiety,
- insomnia
- and seizures.
62
Opiates/Opioids
Opioids : man made
Opiates : natural produced
Endorphin Site Binding:
* Binds to the brain's endorphin sites, Results in the body ceasing
production of endorphins.
Outcomes:
- Pain relief (analgesia)
- Relaxation
- Euphoria
- Drowsiness
Tolerance and Dependence:
- High risk of drug tolerance.
- Highly addictive.
- Both physical and psychological dependence can develop
Morphine : Derived from opium in poppy flower and is a opiate
- Reserved for severe pain management.
- Prescription-only medication.
Heroin : A derivative of morphine, synthetically produced and is a opioid
- Exerts a more intense impact on the central nervous system (CNS).
Long-Term Effects :
- Decreased pain tolerance over time.
- Hormonal imbalances.
- Mental health difficulties.
- Respiratory issues.
Interaction Effects:
- Opioids can have deadly interactions with other depressants.
63
MDMA (ecstasy)
MDMA/ecstasy:
- Stimulants primarily affect dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine.
- Also exhibits mild hallucinogenic properties.
- Technically classified as an amphetamine.
- Short-term effects include euphoria, empathy, altered sensory perceptions, dehydration, anxiety, and increased blood pressure
- Can be potentially deadly in some cases due to its physiological effects.
Chemical Name:
- 3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine
Long-Term Effects on the Body:
* Cognitive Effects:
- Memory problems.
- Attention problems.
* Mood Disorders:
- Depression.
- Anxiety (related to serotonin depletion)
64
Nyaope (Whoonga)
- Unique SA drug
- Mixture of low-grade heroin and marijuana (mixture of categories)
- Mixed with rat poison, drain cleaner and ARVs
- Cheap
- Intense withdrawals (pain & sleep disturbances, flu-like symptoms)
Consequences: erectile dysfunction, cortical atrophy, infection, depression,
mood swings, and hallucinations, not being adherent when HIV+
- Damaging impact on socio-economic level - crime, addiction etc
65
# Melatonin
Define Circadian Rhytms
| linked to daytime and nightime
## Footnote
cardiac rhythms - sleep wake cycle - controlled by circadian rhytms
A cycle that tells our body when to sleep and make us feel tired
- tells our body when to wake up and makes us feel awake
- 24 hour cycle
66
Why do we sleep?
1. Restoration: The process of rejuvenating or repleneshing emotional resources.
2. Memory consolidation: Transfer from STM to LTM.
3. Emotion Regulation: How individuals manage, control or adjust their emotions.
67
Describe the sleep composition?
REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep:
- Active type of sleep
- Most daydreaming
- Voluntary muscles are inhibited
NREM (non-rapid eye movement) sleep:
- Deeper
- More restful
- Free to move around
68
Define sleep deprivation and what the long term effects are?
- A few nights of poor sleep can have consequences for physical and cognitive function
Examples of long term causes of sleep deprivation:
-Angina
-Arthiritis
-Depression
-Chronic lung disease
-Impaired cognition
