Comparing + Contrasting Texts (P1 Q3) (36) Flashcards
Non-Fluency Features
-hesitations
- hedges
- voiced hesitations/ filled pauses
-false starts
-repetition
-overlaps
-minimal responses
-repairs
-topic loops
-back channelling
=Frequent mistakes in our speech
- usually go unnoticed
- formal occasions used less however they still occur
Examples:
1) Hesitations -> if frequent or significantly long (over 3 seconds) listener is likely to stop listening to interrupt
- silence is viewed as a breakdown in communication and issues that the conversation must have failed somehow
- silence = more comfortable with those your close with
2) Hedges -> words/ phrases which weaken a statement
E.g ‘kind of’ , ‘sort of’, ‘maybe’ , ‘perhaps’
- used if your unsure/ trying not to boost/ criticising someone to seem softer when doing so
3) Voiced hesitations/ filled pauses ->
4) False starts-> = involve either repeating or reformulating a sentence
Result of speaker:
- forgetting what they were going to say
- making a mistake
- not being heard
- reconstructing idea (i-i-i)
5) Repetition -> repetition may be the result of a false start (i-i-i-)
6) Overlaps -> participants in a conversation speaking at the same time.
7) minimal responses -> e.g ‘hmmm’, ‘yeah’, ‘ohhh’
= examples of overlaps used to support the main speaker they are positive( shows engagement)
8) Repairs-> you try to fix a non fluency (make conversation successful)
- EG fillers, stops interruptions
- EG false starts , other speaker may aid what they’ve attempted to say
9) Topic loops -> returning to a previous topic already discussed
10) Back channelling -> ‘ you see?’ ‘you know what I mean?’
= requires a positive response
if no response repairing is achieved by repetition or reformulation
Reasons for Overlaps
Reasons for:
- competing for turns
- competing one speaker misjudges the end of another speakers
competing one speaker misjudges the end of another speakers
- a dominant speaker interrupts
Difference between overlaps and interruptions
Interruptions are purposeful.
In cooperative conversation, overlaps are resolved by others allowing one person to hold the floor whereas interruptions you may continue.
Tag questions
-isn’t it
- didn’t we
= check listener is still listening, to get approval
- Could be seen as a dominant thing as forces listener to give feedback
- Could also show uncertainty as implies speaker needs approval
Pre-closing
Pre-closing a conversation ( right I must go now!)
Closing a conversation (bye)
Prosodic Features
= sound quality of voice (e.g stress)
stress: the forceful pronunciation of one particular vowel found in the prominent syllable of a word
contrastive stress: when correcting or giving a different opinion, the syllable containing corrected information is stressed.
A: “She looks happy”
B: “She looks UNHAPPY”
Grice’s Cooperative Principle (theory)
= Grice proposed that in conversation speakers follow four maxims in order to make a conversation cooperative and to be understood.
- QUALITY : speakers should be truthful. They should not say what they believe to be false or make statements for which they lack evidence. (supermaxim)
- QUANTITY: a contribution should be as informative as is required; it should be neither too long nor too short
- RELATION : speakers’ contributions should relate clearly to the purpose of the exchange.
- MANNER: speakers’ should be clear, orderly and brief, avoiding obscurity and ambiguity. (supermaxim)
Leech’s Politeness Principle (theory)
= He believed that politeness in conversation involved establishing and maintaining harmony. (more than one maxim can be used at the same time)
(tack, generosity, approbation, modesty, agreement and sympathy)
Tack -> minimise cost to others (not offending)
Generosity -> minimise benefit to self
Approbation -> minimise dispraise to others
Modesty -> minimise praise to self
Agreement -> minimise disagreement between self and others
Sympathy -> minimise antipathy between self and other (showing sympathy)
The Geese And Mice And Swans
flouting vs violating maxims (Grice)
flouting : breaking a rule intentionally (ie deliberately lying)
violating : breaking a rule unintentionally/unconsciously
Assymetrical
A conversation where there is a power imbalance(where one participant is more powerful than another)
-e.g teacher and student, police officer and offender, doctor and patient
Waering’s powers
- political power = legal power like police, judges etc (Language used in political power often is impolite, little convergence and imperatives used).
- personal power = occupational power like doctor, teacher ( people who have power over you due to their job) (Doctors use low frequency lexis, parents speak in third person)
- social power = Societal power ( Women disabled people and ethnic minorities typically have less social power. In an unequal society different groups use different forms of language)
EG Certain accents and dialects of you does an adequate in prestigious workplaces (Essex)
Morreal thesis
- humour can be used as a powerful strategy
Fairclough
1) idea of synthetic personalisation = gives an audience, who are treated en masse, the impression of being considered individuals. (e.g ‘do you feel….’ = makes them feel special using direct address
2) Power within and behind discourse:
within discourse - features used to convey power (e.g register, interruptions, stress, medical specialised jargon/low frequency lexis etc)
Eg A doctor may have power within discourse through his use of medical terminology. (e.g register, interruptions, stress etc)
behind discourse - who wrote it? why did they write it? how have they got power?
(Eg A doctor may have power behind discourse due to the socially conformed ideology that doctors are trustworthy therefore, making the participant more likely to listen due to societies hierarchy)
3) 2 types of power…
instrumental = enforced authority imposed by the law, school, exam boards etc (only held by certain ppl)
influential = persuasive power (anyone can hold this power)
Goffman on face
face = the positive public image we seek to establish in social interactions. (a speakers self esteem)
FTA (face threatening acts) = acts which cause you to lose your face (make you embarrassed)
- verbal ; words
- paraverbal; intonation, tone, stress
- non verbal ; facial expressions
Positive face: the want to be liked and approved of (self esteem)
-> appeal: complementing
-> threaten: criticism
Negative face: the want to not have your basic rights and freedoms impeded by others/desire not to be opposed upon
-> appeal: giving options
-> threaten: declarative > interrogative
Politeness strategies (brown and levinson)
1) Bald on-record : when someone gets straight to the point so do not attempt to imitate the threat to the listener’s face (due to a sense of urgency)
-> WATCH OUT!
(+ avoids confusion + puts public pressure on when needed)
2) Positive politeness: making someone feel good about themselves (appealing to their positive face)
-> eg complimenting, agreeing, congratulating
-> find common ground “I’m no good at that either”
-> juxtaposing criticisms with compliments “I don’t like… but..”
-> nicknames “mate”
-> jokes
(+ increases solidarity + decreases social distance)
3) Negative politeness: making someone feel like they haven’t been imposed or taken advantage of (appealing to neg face)
-> hedging, mitigating “Would you possibly mind…”
-> questions>commands “//“
-> apologetic “I am sorry but could you do this for me?”
4) Off record : indirectness; speaker typically avoids saying that potentially face threatening act at all.
-> implies/ relies on pragmatics
“It’s a bit cold in here” > Shut the door
(+ credit for being tactful + avoids responsibility)
Examples of acts that may threaten positive/negative face (brown and levinson)
Threatens POSITIVE face:
-> disagreement “I’m definitely better at maths than you”
-> disapproval
-> accusations “You ate all the cheese, didn’t you”
-> criticisms “I really don’t like that top”
Threatens NEGATIVE face:
-> pressure to do an order “Shut the door now”(bald on record/deixis)/ imperatives>interrogatives
-> a threat “If you don’t listen to me…”
Times when a speaker may damage their own pos/neg face
Pos:
-> apologise
-> confess
-> loss of emotional control
Neg:
-> apologise
-> excuses
-> acceptance of gratitude/compliments
Sociological variable affecting face (Brown and Levinson)
1) the greater the social distance between listener and speaker = more politeness is expected
2) the greater the listener’s perceived relative power over the speaker = more politeness is recommended
3) the greater the imposition on the listener = higher level of politeness required
idiolect
dialect
sociolect
i-> your individual way of speaking
d-> your regions way of speaking
s-> your social groups way of speaking
RP
Received Pronunciation
= the accent traditionally regarded as standard for British English.
- used by the royal family/ government/ high status posh people
