Comparing And Contrasting Texts * Flashcards
Non-fluency features
- Fillers ‘uhm’ ‘er’
- False starts ‘I was (.) I was about to’
- Pauses: micro pauses/timed pause ‘(.)’
- Hedges (vague language) ‘I think’
- Self correction or repair (making a mistake and correcting it)
Hallidays Categories of Register
Field: the subject matter will determine the vocab used and that affects the formality of the register
Tenor: the relationship between the participants (speakers/listeners) (producer/receiver)
Mode: the mode of communication: spoken, written, mixed or multi-modal
Joos (1961) levels of formality
Frozen: printed, unchanging language such as bible quotations
Formal: one way participation, no interruption. Technical vocabulary
Consultative: two way participation. Background information is provided. Back channeling ‘uh huh’ is common, interruptions allowed
Casual: group of friends + acquaintances. No background info provided. Ellipsis, slang, commas + interruptions
Intimate: non public. Intonation more important than wording or grammar. Private vocab
e.g. where are you bitch
Features of formal language
- Standard English
- Euphemism
- Latinate
- Polysyllabic
Features of informal language
- Taboo/slang/vulgarism
- Colloquialism
- Fillers ‘uhm’
- Contractions
- Idiom
- Dysphemism (rude Lang)
- Ellipsis
Discourse structure
1) adjacency pairs
2) turn taking
3) opener and closer
4) Topic management and framing
Discourse Structure
Insertion Sequence
Adjacency pies esperares by intervening utterances
e. g.
a) shall I wear the blue ones
b) you’ve got the black ones
a) they’re not comfortable
b) wear the blue ones then
Discourse Structure
Tag Questions
That’s the food, right?
Discourse Structure
Preferred/dispreferred response
Pr: a question is expected to be complemented by an answer
Dr: not to answer question, or in inappropriate length, interrupt smooth flow of a conversation or
Discourse Structure
Openers
Discourse markers
e.g. so how are you?
Discourse Structure
Framing
Controlling a conversation
Discourse Structure
Agenda Setting
The initial establishment of the topic
Discourse Structure
Topic Management
Organisation of topics, can move from speaker to speaker (more informal setting)
Discourse Structure
Closers
Discourse markers
e.g. right, best be off
Discourse Structure
Self related comment
Comment about them self
Discourse Structure
Other related comment
Comment about someone else
Discourse Structure
Neutral comment
Comment on the weather for example
Discourse Structure
Phatic Communication
Small talk
e.g. hi how are you’
Discourse Structure
Back channeling
‘Yeah’ as someone talks
Showing signs of recognition
Politeness Strategies
Goffman (1950’s)
In most interactions we are trying to save ours and others faces
Positive face: Keeping a positive expression to make you look good
> self esteem threatened when criticised
Negative face: Self interest, threatened when we’re asked to do something we don’t want to do
Face threatening act: When a persons face is threatened - rudeness
Politeness Strategies
Brown and Levinson (1970)
Positive Politeness Strategies: seek to form a closer relationship with the listener and are intended to avoid giving offence by highlighting friendliness
(jokes, nicknames, compliments)
Negative Politeness Strategies: seek to maintain a distance between the speaker and listener. They are intended to avoid giving offence by showing respect
(Questioning, hedging, disagreements as an opinion)
Bald on record: speaker is blunt and direct. Doesn’t avoid threatening face (‘get out’)
Off-record: when face is threatened at all
(‘this room is quite messy, isn’t it?’)
Politeness Strategies
Brown and Levinson (1970)
Three ‘sociological variables’
i) the social distance of the speaker and hearer
> greater distance, more polite
(ii) the relative power of the speaker over the hearer
> greater power, more politeness
(iii) the absolute ranking of impositions in the particular culture
> heavier the imposition on the hearer m, more polite
Grices Maxims
Maxims = rules we follow to
communicate successfully.
- Maxim of quantity:
Don’t say more or less than what is required. - Maxim of quality:
Don’t say what you believe may be false. - Maxim of relation:
Don’t give irrelevant information. - Maxim of manner
Be clear
Lakoff
Maxims of Politeness
Maxims of politeness:
- Don’t impose
> Excuse me… Could you possibly… - Give options
> If you don’t mind… If you have a minute… - Make the receiver feel good
> Thanks so much… That’s a good idea…
