Comparing And Contrasting Texts * Flashcards
Non-fluency features
- Fillers ‘uhm’ ‘er’
- False starts ‘I was (.) I was about to’
- Pauses: micro pauses/timed pause ‘(.)’
- Hedges (vague language) ‘I think’
- Self correction or repair (making a mistake and correcting it)
Hallidays Categories of Register
Field: the subject matter will determine the vocab used and that affects the formality of the register
Tenor: the relationship between the participants (speakers/listeners) (producer/receiver)
Mode: the mode of communication: spoken, written, mixed or multi-modal
Joos (1961) levels of formality
Frozen: printed, unchanging language such as bible quotations
Formal: one way participation, no interruption. Technical vocabulary
Consultative: two way participation. Background information is provided. Back channeling ‘uh huh’ is common, interruptions allowed
Casual: group of friends + acquaintances. No background info provided. Ellipsis, slang, commas + interruptions
Intimate: non public. Intonation more important than wording or grammar. Private vocab
e.g. where are you bitch
Features of formal language
- Standard English
- Euphemism
- Latinate
- Polysyllabic
Features of informal language
- Taboo/slang/vulgarism
- Colloquialism
- Fillers ‘uhm’
- Contractions
- Idiom
- Dysphemism (rude Lang)
- Ellipsis
Discourse structure
1) adjacency pairs
2) turn taking
3) opener and closer
4) Topic management and framing
Discourse Structure
Insertion Sequence
Adjacency pies esperares by intervening utterances
e. g.
a) shall I wear the blue ones
b) you’ve got the black ones
a) they’re not comfortable
b) wear the blue ones then
Discourse Structure
Tag Questions
That’s the food, right?
Discourse Structure
Preferred/dispreferred response
Pr: a question is expected to be complemented by an answer
Dr: not to answer question, or in inappropriate length, interrupt smooth flow of a conversation or
Discourse Structure
Openers
Discourse markers
e.g. so how are you?
Discourse Structure
Framing
Controlling a conversation
Discourse Structure
Agenda Setting
The initial establishment of the topic
Discourse Structure
Topic Management
Organisation of topics, can move from speaker to speaker (more informal setting)
Discourse Structure
Closers
Discourse markers
e.g. right, best be off
Discourse Structure
Self related comment
Comment about them self
Discourse Structure
Other related comment
Comment about someone else
Discourse Structure
Neutral comment
Comment on the weather for example
Discourse Structure
Phatic Communication
Small talk
e.g. hi how are you’
Discourse Structure
Back channeling
‘Yeah’ as someone talks
Showing signs of recognition
Politeness Strategies
Goffman (1950’s)
In most interactions we are trying to save ours and others faces
Positive face: Keeping a positive expression to make you look good
> self esteem threatened when criticised
Negative face: Self interest, threatened when we’re asked to do something we don’t want to do
Face threatening act: When a persons face is threatened - rudeness
Politeness Strategies
Brown and Levinson (1970)
Positive Politeness Strategies: seek to form a closer relationship with the listener and are intended to avoid giving offence by highlighting friendliness
(jokes, nicknames, compliments)
Negative Politeness Strategies: seek to maintain a distance between the speaker and listener. They are intended to avoid giving offence by showing respect
(Questioning, hedging, disagreements as an opinion)
Bald on record: speaker is blunt and direct. Doesn’t avoid threatening face (‘get out’)
Off-record: when face is threatened at all
(‘this room is quite messy, isn’t it?’)
Politeness Strategies
Brown and Levinson (1970)
Three ‘sociological variables’
i) the social distance of the speaker and hearer
> greater distance, more polite
(ii) the relative power of the speaker over the hearer
> greater power, more politeness
(iii) the absolute ranking of impositions in the particular culture
> heavier the imposition on the hearer m, more polite
Grices Maxims
Maxims = rules we follow to
communicate successfully.
- Maxim of quantity:
Don’t say more or less than what is required. - Maxim of quality:
Don’t say what you believe may be false. - Maxim of relation:
Don’t give irrelevant information. - Maxim of manner
Be clear
Lakoff
Maxims of Politeness
Maxims of politeness:
- Don’t impose
> Excuse me… Could you possibly… - Give options
> If you don’t mind… If you have a minute… - Make the receiver feel good
> Thanks so much… That’s a good idea…
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - nouns
Concrete Noun
Things that physically exist
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - nouns
Abstract Noun
Don’t physically exist, ideas and emotions
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - nouns
Proper Noun
Names of people, places and organisations
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - nouns
Collective Noun
Refers to a group
e.g. best class / flock of birds
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - adjectives
Evaluative Adjective
Offer a judgement
e.g. the weather was dreadful
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - adjectives
Comparative Adjective
End in -er
e.g. better
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - adjectives
Superlative Adjective
Expresses the highest degree of quality
e.g. is the best
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - adjectives
Attributive Adjective
Come before the noun they modify
e.g. do you have any available tables for tonight?
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - adjectives
Predicative Adjective
Come after the noun with a verb in between
e.g. do you know if this table is available?
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - adjectives
Post-positive Adjective
Comes immediately after the noun
e.g. is this table available?
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - verbs
Dynamic Verb
Physical actions
e.g. run/skipped/hopped
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - verbs
Stative Verb
States of feelings
e.g. thought/wanted/wished for/hated
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - verbs
Auxiliary Verb
Helping verb
e.g. am/is/has
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - verbs
Modal Verb
Deontic + Epistemic
Type of auxiliary verb
(will, must, possibly)
deontic: express certainty or compulsion
epistemic: expresses possibility and choice
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - verbs
Progressive Verb
An action in progress
e.g. running/skipping
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - verbs
Perfective Verb
An action that has been completed, comes with auxiliary
e.g. had finished
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - verbs
Progressive-perfective Verb
Express a completed action as though it was a skill in progress
e.g. look for- ing + has/ had= she has been crying all day long
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - adverbs
Adverbs of manner
Describes how something is done
e.g. she ran quickly
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - adverbs
Adverbs of manner
Time
When something happens or the frequency of something happening
e.g. I’ll call you tomorrow / I go to the cinema regularly
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - adverbs
Adverbs of manner
Degree
e.g. I am especially pleased with…I am particularly annoyed about…I am very happy about…I’m so cross with…
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - adverbs
Adverbs of manner
Place
Where something happens
e.g. I left my phone behind
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - conjunctions
Coordinating Conjunction
Connect words or clauses that have ‘equal’ status
e.g. I like ice cream but I don’t like chocolate
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - conjunctions
Subordinating Conjunction
Connect words or clauses that have ‘unequal’ status
e.g. If you do that again, you’ll be in trouble
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - determiner
Demonstrative Pronoun
My / your that comes before a noun
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - determiner
Demonstrative Determiner
That / this
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - determiner
Definite Determiner
the
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - prepositions
Prepositions
under
after
over
etc
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - pronouns
First Person Personal Pronoun
i
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - pronouns
Second Person Personal Pronoun
You
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - pronouns
Third Person Personal Pronoun
He/She
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - pronouns
Singular Pronoun
One person
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - pronouns
Plural Pronoun
More than one person
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - pronouns
Processive Pronoun
Shows possession
Mine / yours / ours / theirs / his / hers
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - pronouns
Reflexive Pronoun
Has ‘self’ added to the pronoun
e.g. Do it yourself / I’ll do it myself
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - pronouns
Reciprocal Pronoun
Each other / one another
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - pronouns
Indefinite Pronoun
Somebody / someone
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - pronouns
Interrogative Pronoun
Found at the start of interrogatives
e.g. who / what / why
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - pronouns
Relative Pronoun
Follow the noun they refer to
e.g. that’s the dress I want to buy
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - Lexis
Modifiers
A word (noun or adjective) that modified a sentence / adds to the sense of the head noun
e.g. large family home
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - Lexis
Neologisms
Newly created words
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - Lexis
Compound Words
New words created by joining two existing words together
e.g. dustbin
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - Semantics
Lexical field / Semantic field
Lexical: words connected in meaning that are connected to the subject matter of the text
Semantics: field of words connected in meaning that is not the subject matter of the text
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - Semantics
Collocations
Words that go together
e.g. salt + pepper / fish + chips
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - Semantics
Metaphor
Figurative not literal
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - Semantics
Pun
Play on words
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - Semantics
Hyperbole
Exaggeration
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - Semantics
Meiosis
Deliberate understatement
e.g. This diamond ring is a small token of my love for you
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - Semantics
Synecdoche
A part stands in for a whole or a whole stands for a part
e.g. I’m getting my new wheels today / the government will make an announcement today
Lexis and Semantics
Word classes - Semantics
Metonymy
One thing represents something else
e.g. Wall Street represents the US banking system
