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Molecular & Cell Biology > Comp Exam-Zaidi > Flashcards

Comp Exam-Zaidi Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

four major phases of development

A
  1. cell division and prolferation: producing many cells from one
  2. cell differenation and specialization: creating cells with different characeristics
  3. cell interaction: influences each others behaviors
  4. cell migration: rearrangement to form layers which give rise to structures such as tissues and organs

all this happens simultaneously in different parts of the developing embryo

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2
Q

homologous proteins are functionally ____

ex

A

interchangeable

normal mouse lacking engrailed-1 → no cerebellum → drosphilia donated engrailed → cerebellum

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3
Q

conserved mechanisms for development:

  1. after fertilization the zygote divides ____
  2. genome is initially ____
  3. genome becomes active and cells divide and cohere to form a ____ (ball of cells surrounding a hollow cavity)
  4. blastula then undergoes massive rearrangements to form ____ (has 3 major layers)
A
  1. rapidly
  2. inactive
  3. blastula
  4. gastrula
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4
Q
  • blastula conists of a sheet of ____ cells facing the external medium
    • this sheet give rise to the ____
  • ectoderm:
  • endoderm:
  • mesoderm:
  • transformation of blastula (hollow spehre of cells) into a layered structure with a gut caled ___
A
  • epithelial
    • ectoderm
  • precursor for nervous system and epidermis
  • percursor of gut, lung, and liver
  • precursor of muscles and connective tissue
  • gastrulaution
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5
Q

higher organisms have several homologs of the same gene: ____

gene regulatory proteins - most important for ____

A

gene duplication

development

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6
Q

instructions for producing a multicellular animal contained in the

A

non-coding regulatory DNA

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7
Q

____ sequences in DNA similar in most organisms, but ____ sequences make one organism different from another and provide uniqueness

A

coding

non-coding

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8
Q

cells that are fated to develop into a specialized cell type, despite changes in environment are called ____

cells that can change rapidly due to alterations in environment are called ____ ____

cells that have some attributes of a particular cell type but can change with environment are called ____

A

determined

completely undetermined

committed

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9
Q

position specific character of cell is called ____

cells retain ____ of positional value

A

positional value

memory

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10
Q

cellular defferentiation:

  • asymmetric division:
    • ex:
  • symmetric division:
A
  • sister cells born differently ; molecules distributed unequally between daughter cells
    • germ cells
  • sister cells become different as a result of influences acting on them after their birth (inductive signaling)
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11
Q

inductive signaling:

  • most important environmental cues are signals from nieghboring ____
  • induction of a different developmental program in select cells in a homogeneous group leading to altered character - ____ signaling
  • types of signals:
    • ____ range: cell-cell contacts
    • ____ range: substances that can diffuse through the extracellular matrix
A
  • cells
  • inductive
    • short
      • long
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12
Q

morphogens:

  • morphogen: long range ____ signal that imposes a pattern on a field of cells
  • exerts graded effects by forming ____ of different concentrations
  • gradient formed by
    • localized production of an ____ that diffuses away from its source
    • localized production of an ____ that diffsues away from its source and blocks the action of a uniformly distributed inducer
  • morphogens need an ____ and ____ system
A
  • inductive
  • gradients
    • inducer
      • inhibitor
  • on and off
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13
Q

lateral inhibition and positive feedback:

  1. system starts off ____ and ____
  2. environment imposes weak ____
  3. positive feedback ____ effect
  4. broken asymmetry is ____ or ____ phenomenon
  5. ____ - once achieved, external signal becomes irrelevant
  6. ex:
A
  1. homogeneous and symmetrical
  2. asymmetry
  3. amplifies
  4. all or none
  5. irreversible
  6. delta-notch
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14
Q

ultimate result of inductive events is change in ____ ____

A

DNA transcription

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15
Q

phases of neural development development:

  • phase 1: ____ of neurons → different cell types develop independently at separate locations
  • phase 2: ____ of axons and dendrites along specific routes ; ____ formation
  • phase 3: ____ of synaptic connections: continues into adult life, occurs through interactions with distant reigosn via electric signals
A
  • genesis
  • outgrowth, synaptic
  • refinement
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16
Q

origin of the nervous system:

  1. neurons are produced in associaiton with ____ cells
  2. CNS is derived from ____ ____
  3. PNS is derived from ____ ____
A
  1. glial
  2. neural tube
  3. neural crest
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17
Q

neural crest:

  • neural crest cells originate at the ____ end of the neural tube
  • migrate extensively during or shrotly after closure of the neural tube - ____
  • process
    • ____ → ____ → ____ → ____
A
  • dorsal
  • neurulation
    • proliferate → migrate → aggreagate → differentiate
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18
Q

last born neurons are on the ____ of the cerebral cortex

A

outside

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19
Q

molecular mechanisms of neuronal migration:

  1. tip of axon/dendrite has an irregular, spiky enlargement called ____ ____
  2. one of the growth cones starts migrating fast and develops ____ ____ - this will form the axon
  3. growth cone behavior is dictated by its ____ machinery
    1. grow out ____ and ____
    2. monomeric GTPases ____ and ____ control the assembly/disassebmly of actin filaments which control movement of growth cone
    3. travel towards targets aong ____ routes
      1. extracellular matrix environment is sensed by ____ present on membrane
      2. chemotactic factors are released by neibhboring cells and can be ____ or ____
A
  1. growth cone
  2. axon-specific proteins
  3. cytoskeletal
    1. filopodia and lamelopodia
    2. Rho and Rac
    3. predictable routes
      1. receptors
      2. attractive or repulsive
20
Q

extracellular matrix (growth cones migration):

  • growth cones often follow a path taken by other cells - ____ ____
  • mediated by ____ cell adhesion molecules
    • two important families
      • ____ superfamily
      • ____ family
  • matrix molecules such as ____ favor axonal outgrowth
  • matrix molecules such as ____ ____ ____ inhibit growth
A
  • contact guidance
  • homophilic
      • immunoglobulin
        • cadherin
  • laminin
  • chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans
21
Q

development of spinal cord:

  • ____ neurons of spinal cord receive and relay sensory info from sensory neurons located in the periphery
  • ____ clusters of spinal cord neurons develop as motor neurons and send out long axons to connect with muscles
  • ____ location has interneurons that connect specific set of nerve cells to each other
A
  • dorsal
  • ventral
  • intermediate
22
Q

guidance of commissural neurons:

  1. ____ is secreted by floor plate and draw neurons towards floor plate
  2. midline cells secrete ____ , its receptor Roundabout repels growth cones and blocks entry to the midline
  3. ____ is another repulsive signal that
  4. growth cone becomes trapped between 2 sets of repellants and travel in a narrow track to the ____
A
  1. nectrin
  2. slit
  3. semaphorin
  4. brain
23
Q

most neurons are made in ____ and up to ____ die after they reach target cell

target cell produces limtied amount of specific ____ factors need for survival

neurons that don’t get enough neurotrophic factors die by:

A

excesss, 50%

neurotrophic

programmed cell death

24
Q

adult memory:

synapses are strengthened by external events that cause ____ or more neurons to be activated at the same time

entry of ____ through the glutamate receptor ( ____ receptor) triggers lasting chagne in synaptic strength

individual dendritic ____ remodeled, new spines appear

A

2

calcium, NMDA

spines

25
Q

characteristics of stem cells:

  1. not terminally ____
  2. can divide without ____
  3. abilty to ____ themselves
  4. undergo ____ division
A
  1. differentiated
  2. limit
  3. renew
  4. slow
26
Q
  • totipotpency:
    • ex
  • pluripotency:
    • ex
  • multipotency:
    • ex
A
  • gives rise to all cells of an organism (embryonic and extra-embryonic tissues)
    • zygote
  • give rise to all cells of the embryo and susequently adult tissues
    • embryonic stem cells
  • give rise to different cell types of a given lineage
    • adult stem cells
27
Q

maintenance of stem cells:

  1. asymmetric division:
  2. independent choice:
A
  1. creates 2 cells → one stem cell and one with ability to differentiate
  2. creates 2 identical cells but outcome is influence by environment
    1. both can become differentiated, both can remain stem, or combination of the 2
28
Q

asymmetric division cannot explain how existing stem cells can rapidly increase their ____

A

numbers

29
Q

each organ/tissue has fixed number of ____ cell populations programmed to have fixed number of divisions

A

founder

30
Q

transit amplifying cells: mixed with stem cells and divide ____

are programmed to divide for a limited ____ of times

A

frequently

number

31
Q

adult stem cells need a ____ ____ where they can stay as a stem cell (niche)

A

specialized microenvironment

32
Q

epidermis

dermis

hypodermis

A

outer covering of skin; water barrier

second layer; rich in collagen; tough

fatty subcutatneous layer

33
Q

cells of the epidermis:

  1. epidermis is a ____ layer made of ____
  2. basal cell layer is the only ____ cells in epidermis
  3. next layer is ____ cells
  4. next layer is ____ cells which form a waterproof barrier
    1. forms boundary between inner ____ active strata and ____ dead epidermis cells
  5. outermost layer is ____ , flattened dead cells densely packed with keratin but no organelles
A
  1. stratified, keratinocytes
  2. dividing
  3. prickle
  4. granular
    1. metabolically, outer
  5. squame
34
Q

regulation of epidermal stem cells:

  1. loss of contact with basal lamina triggers stem cell to ____
  2. contact with basal lamina is mediated via ____ signaling
A
  1. differentiate
  2. integrin
35
Q

hair follicle:

  1. hair grows upward from ____ ____
  2. ____ glands secrete ____
  3. stem cells present in ____
A
  1. dermal papilla
  2. sebaceous, sebum
  3. bulge
36
Q

upregulation of Wnt signaling causes

underactivation of hedgehog leads to

A

extra hair follicles to develop (gives rise to tumors)

loss of sebaceous glands

37
Q

____ plays a key role in repair of skin wounds

A

TGF-beta

38
Q

sensory cells present in the senosry epithelium acts as ____ , convering signals from the environment into an electrical form that can be interpreted by CNS

well ____ through evoluation

A

transducers

conserved

39
Q

olfactory neurons:

  1. ____ neurons with a dendrite facing the extracellular environment and an axon that travels along the olfactory nerve to the olfactory ____ in the brain
  2. many tiny hair-like ____ protrude from the dendrite
  3. free surfaces of cilia have ____ receptor proteins
    1. each neuron expresses only one of these genes enabling the cell to respond to only one class of ____
  4. olfactory receptors are ____
    1. activated ofactory receptors in turn activate an ____ → ____ → ____ → opens ion channels that results in the influx of ____ and ____ which generates an action potential
A
  1. bipolar , bulb
  2. cilia
  3. odorant
    1. odornat
  4. GPCRs
    1. Golf → adenylate cyclase → cAMP, sodium and calcium
40
Q

function of olfactory receptors:

  1. relay stations in brain called ____
    1. located in ____ ____, one on each side of the brain
    2. 1800 glomeruli/bulb in mouse brain
  2. axons of olfactory neurons (that all express the same odorant receptor) their axons converge on the same ____
  3. individual olfactory neurons survive for one ____
  4. regeneration of olfactory receptor cells is one of the only few instance of adult ____ in the CNS
A
  1. glomeruli
    1. olfactory bulb
      1. glomerulus
  2. month
  3. neurogenesis
41
Q

neurospheres

A

cluster of neuronal stem cells

can differentitate into neurons and glial cells

evidence for neural stem cells

42
Q

embryonic stem cells

A

pluripotency

incapable of generating a full organism

come from inner cell mass of blastocyst

43
Q

embryonic stem cells:

  1. ____ → adipocyte
  2. ____ → neuron
  3. ____ → macrophage
  4. ____ → smooth muscle
  5. ____ → astrocytes and oligodendrocyte
A
  1. retinoic acid, insulin, thyroid hormone
  2. retinoic acid
  3. macrophage colonly stimulating factor, IL-3,1
  4. retinoic acid, dibutryryl cAMP,
  5. fibroblast growth factor
44
Q

somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCeNT):

  1. ____ taken from ____ cell of patient and injected into ____ of a donor replacing the oocyte nuclues
  2. blastocyst generated from this ____ oocyte and ES cell isolated
A
  1. nucleus, somatic, oocyte
  2. hybrid
45
Q

induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC):

  1. adult ____ cells
  2. expose cells to transcription factors ( ____ , ____ , ____ , ____ )
  3. low ____
A
  1. fibroblast
  2. Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, Myc
  3. yield
46
Q

repair of skin:

  1. for repopulating damaged area:
    1. cultured ____ cells from healthy skin regions of patietns used to isolate stem cells
  2. for immediate replacemnt dermis
    1. dermis from ____ or artificial matrix used as barrier preventing water loss
    2. a matrix of ____ and ____ made into a sheet lined with a thin membrane of ____ rubber on the outside
    3. ____ and blood ____ from patient’s tissue migrate towards the artificial skin and reform the connective tisue underneath
A
    1. epidermal
    1. cadaver
    2. collagen and glycosaminoglycan, silicone
    3. fibroblasts and blood capillaries

Molecular & Cell Biology (10 decks)

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