Communication

Question 1

Define communication (Krebs & Davies, 1993)

Answer 1

The process in which actors use specially designed signals or displays to modify the behaviour of reactors.

Question 2

How did Darwin define communication?

Answer 2

‘The expression of the emotions in man and animals’

Question 3

Human communication is often ________.

Answer 3

intentional

Question 4

Name the different ways to communicate

Answer 4

Acoustic, visual, tactile, olfactory

Question 5

What types of communication is particularly relevant for humans?

Answer 5

Tactile communication is used for managing out social relationships between close social partners and vocalisation is extremely important to use and even non-verbal vocalisation such as laughter or sobbing is important.

Question 6

What types of signal have a long range?

Answer 6

Olfactory and auditory

Question 7

What types of communication have a slow rate of change of signal?

Answer 7

Olfactory

Question 8

What types of signals have a good ability to go past obstacles?

Answer 8

Olfactory and auditory

Question 9

What types of signals have a poor ability to go past obstacles?

Answer 9

Visual and tactile

Question 10

What type of signal has variable locatability?

Answer 10

olfactory

Question 11

What type of signal has medium locatability?

Answer 11

auditory

Question 12

What type of signal has high locatability?

Answer 12

visual and tactile

Question 13

What types of signal have low energetic costs?

Answer 13

Olfactory, visual, tactile

Question 14

What types of signal have high energetic costs?

Answer 14

auditory

Question 15

What types of communication have a fast rate of change of signal?

Answer 15

auditory, visual and tactile

Question 16

What type of signal has a medium range?

Answer 16

visual

Question 17

What type of signal has a short range?

Answer 17

tactile

Question 18

Explain how Leptothorax ants use communication ?

Answer 18

The ants feed on large dead beetles that need two ants to carry it. The ants go back to the nest arm recruit another ant by regurgitation (chemical signal). The helper is lead to the food site by ‘tandem running’, the antennae rests on the abdomen. (tactile)

Question 19

Explain how fire ants use communication ?

Answer 19

The ants feed on large mobile prey and need several other ants to carry their prey. The ants leave a scent trail (Chemical) to and from the moving prey. The chemical signal disperses quickly so the trail keeps up with the prey.

Question 20

How do Hyenas use communication?

Answer 20

Hyenas use scent marking which is a chemical signals . There are two compounds, one white and one black. The black compound disperses after a short time potentially to warn pack members that the area has been foraged recently . Meanwhile the white paste persists for longer in order to be a long-term territorial marker. Function dictates the design of the signal.

Question 21

What does the signal type depend on?

Answer 21

Need and function as well as environmental constraints. The senses of the RECEIVER also constrain the evolution of the signal. (Guildford & Dawkins, 1993)

Question 22

Explain receiver constraints

Answer 22

There is a conflict between intended and non-intended receivers . Some signals may be detectable to predators. This is addressed through the evolution of undetectable signals such as ‘private colouration’ which have been favoured by evolution.

Question 23

Explain targeted communication

Answer 23

Used to combat receiver constraints. Behavioural displays such as
- birds of paradise - visual colour couples with courtship dance

• anolid lizards - bright colour hidden in flat of skin
• visual signals but not always ‘‘switched on’’

Question 24

How do signals evolve?

Answer 24

Signals evolve from existing behaviour which tap into receiver senses. Receivers who respond to behaviour BEFORE it happens will be favoured by evolution because it will reduce the likelihood of an attack and its associated costs (injury).

Question 25

Give examples of intention movements

Answer 25

dog about to jump - indicating that the dog wants to play

Wing flick as a bird prepares to take off . If produced early enough before taking off, other birds can use this information and coordinate their behaviour .

Question 26

Explain displacement activities

Answer 26

Seemingly irrelevant actions associated with courtship, threat displays, territorial. behaviour etc.

Question 27

What is ritualisation?

Answer 27

Intention movements or displacement activities become ritualised if they improve signal function of a display. Behaviours become highly stereotyped, repetitive, exaggerated and augmented by physical changes to aid signal.

Question 28

What are the three hypothesis about ritualisation

Answer 28

• reduction of ambiguity
• manipulation
• honesty

Question 29

Explain ‘reduction of ambiguity’ as a hypothesis of ritualisation

Answer 29

Ritualised signals may be less ambiguous and greater clarity of signal. Increased clarity reduces the information about motivational state of the actor. This doesn’t seem like a good thing but it is because if if there is no information about the sender then there is no information regarding the physical/ emotional state. If you are small, nobody will know.

Question 30

Explain ‘manipulation’ as a hypothesis of ritualisation

Answer 30

Signallers must benefit from signally. An actor manipulates the senses of the receiver via ritualisation, the receiver evolves strategies to avoid this.

Question 32

Give examples of manipulation

Answer 32

Batesian mimicry
- harmless animals evolve colouration similar to poisonous animals

Deception
- cuckoo eggs
- Drongo false alarms

Question 33

Explain ‘honesty’ as a hypothesis of ritualisation

Answer 33

Ritualisation allows signals to become reliable signals of quality. Only honest signals will prevail (others will die out) e.g ‘Slotting’ in gazelles.

Question 34

What are signals constrained by?

Answer 34

• Senses of intended receivers
• Pressure from unintended receivers
• Need for specificity of signals
• Evolutionary arms races with “cheats” engaging in deception
• Consequent preferences for honest

Question 35

Summarise the communication topic.

Answer 35

Communication is important. The function, environment and the receiver should always be considered when considering communication. We must be careful when considering intentionality and other possible cognitive underpinnings of communication. Potential differences between human and animal communication and the way we approach human vs animal communication.

Question 36

What is an index?

Answer 36

A signal that cannot be faked