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Biology: Module 4: Biodiversity, Evolution & Disease > Communicable Diseases, Disease Prevention and the Immune System > Flashcards

Communicable Diseases, Disease Prevention and the Immune System Flashcards

1
Q

Different types of pathogen

A

Bacteria

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2
Q

Diseases caused by bacteria

A

Tuberculosis

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3
Q

Diseases caused by viruses

A

HIV/AIDS

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4
Q

Diseases caused by protoctista

A

Malaria

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5
Q

Diseases caused by fungi

A

Black sigatoka

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6
Q

Organisms affected by ring rot

A

Potatoes

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7
Q

Organisms affected by black sigatoka

A

Bananas

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8
Q

Organisms affected by ring worm

A

Cattle

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9
Q

Types of transmission of communicable pathogens

A

Direct

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10
Q

Direct transmission

A

The transfer of a pathogen directly from one individual to another

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11
Q

Methods of direct transmission in humans

A

Direct contact

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12
Q

Types of direct contact

A

Kissing

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13
Q

Things kissing and contact with bodily fluids can pass on

A

Bacterial meningitis

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14
Q

Things direct skin-to-skin contact can pass on

A

Ring worm

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15
Q

Things microorganisms from faeces can pass on

A

Diarrhoeal diseases

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16
Q

Types of inoculation

A

Break in the skin

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17
Q

Things breaks in the skin can pass on

A

HIV/AIDS

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18
Q

Things animal bites can pass on

A

Rabies

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19
Q

Things puncture wound/sharing needles can pass on

A

Septicaemia

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20
Q

Things ingestion can pass on

A

Amoebic dysentery

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21
Q

Methods of indirect transmission in animals

A

Fomites

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22
Q

Examples of fomites

A

Bedding

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23
Q

Things fomites can pass on

A

Athlete’s foot

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24
Q

Examples of droplet infection

A

Expulsion of saliva and mucus

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25
Q

Things droplet infections can pass on

A

Influenza

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26
Q

What do vectors do?

A

Transmit communicable pathogens from one host to another

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27
Q

Things vectors can pass on

A

Malaria

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28
Q

Examples of vectors

A

Mosquitoes

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29
Q

Factors affecting the transmission of communicable diseases in animals

A

Overcrowding living and working conditions

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30
Q

How can climate change affect transmission of communicable diseases?

A

Introduce new vectors and new diseases

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31
Q

Example of direct transmission in plants

A

Direct contact of a healthy plant with any part of a diseased plant

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32
Q

Things that direct contact in plants can pass on

A

Ring rot

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33
Q

Examples of indirect transmission in plants

A

Soil contamination

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34
Q

Things that soil contamination can pass on

A

Black sigatoka spores

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35
Q

Examples of vectors for plants

A

Wind

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36
Q

Things that wind as a vector in plants can pass on

A

Black sigatoka

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37
Q

Things that water as a vector in plants can pass on

A

Potato blight

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38
Q

Examples of animal vectors in plants

A

Insects

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39
Q

Examples of things humans do as vectors for plants

A

Hands

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40
Q

Things humans as vectors can pass on for plants

A

TMV

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41
Q

Factors affecting the transmission of communicable diseases in plants

A

Varieties of crops that are susceptible to disease

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42
Q

How does climate change affect the transmission of communicable diseases in plants?

A

Increased rainfall and wind promote the spread of diseases

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43
Q

General pattern of defence in plants

A

Receptors in cells respond to molecules from the pathogen or chemicals produced when the cell wall is attacked

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44
Q

Structure of callose

A

Beta 1

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45
Q

Roles of callose in plant defences

A

Deposited between cell walls to act as barriers to prevent pathogens entering cell walls around the site of infection

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46
Q

Why can plants react by sealing off and sacrificing?

A

They are continually growing at the meristems so can replace damaged parts

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47
Q

Examples of chemicals produced by plants in defence

A

Insect repellents

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48
Q

Examples of insect repellents produced by plants

A

Pine resin and citronella from lemon grass

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49
Q

Examples of insecticides produced by plants

A

Pyrethrins from chrysanthemums

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50
Q

Examples of antibacterial compounds produced by plants

A

Phenols

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51
Q

Examples of anti fungal compounds produced by plants

A

Phenols

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52
Q

Examples of anti-oomycetes

A

Glucanases

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53
Q

Glucanases

A

Enzymes made by some plants that break down glucans

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54
Q

Glucans

A

Polymers found in cell walls of oomycetes

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55
Q

Non-specific animal defences against disease

A

Skin

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56
Q

How does the skin defend against disease?

A

Prevents entry

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57
Q

How do mucuous membranes defend against disease?

A

Secrete mucus that traps microorganisms and contains lysozymes and phagocytes

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58
Q

Blood clotting cascade

A

The tissue is damaged

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59
Q

What does serotonin do in blood clotting and wound repair?

A

Makes the smooth muscle in the walls of the blood vessel contract so they narrow and reduce the supply of blood to the area

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60
Q

What happens after clotting in wound repair?

A

Clot dries out

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61
Q

Inflammatory Response

A

The localised response to pathogens

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62
Q

Characteristics of the inflammatory response

A

Pain

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63
Q

What happens in the inflammatory response?

A

Mast cells are activated in damaged tissue to release histamines and cytokines

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64
Q

What do histamines do?

A

Makes the blood vessels dilate to cause localised heat and redness

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65
Q

Oedema

A

Swelling

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66
Q

What do cytokines do in the inflammatory response?

A

Attract white blood cells

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67
Q

Phagocytes

A

Specialised white blood cells that engulf and destroy pathogens

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68
Q

Types of phagocytes

A

Neutrophils

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69
Q

What is in pus?

A

Dead neutrophils and pathogens

70
Q

Stages of phagocytosis

A

Phagocytes recognise non-human proteins on the pathogen

71
Q

How do macrophages work? (This is the antigen presenting cell stuff)

A

Macrophage digests a pathogen

72
Q

General use of cytokines

A

Act as cell-signalling molecules to inform phagocytes that they need to move to the site of infection or inflammation

73
Q

General use of opsonins

A

Chemicals that bind to pathogens and tag them so they can be recognised by phagocytes. Phagocytes have receptors in cell membranes that bid to opsonins so the phagocyte then engulfs the pathogen

74
Q

Role of plasma cells

A

Produce antibodies for a particular antigen and release them into circulation

75
Q

Role of T helper cells

A

CD4 receptors on the cell surface membrane will bind to surface antigens on antigen presenting cells

76
Q

Role of T killer cells

A

To destroy the pathogen containing the antigen by producing perforin which kills the pathogen by making holes in the cell membrane

77
Q

Role of T regulator cells

A

To suppress the immune system and regulate it

78
Q

When are interleukins particularly important?

A

In preventing the set up of autoimmune responses

79
Q

Role of T memory cells

A

To provide immunological memory

80
Q

Role of B memory cells

A

To provide immunological memory

81
Q

Process of cell mediated immunity

A

Macrophages engulf and digest pathogens in phagocytosis

82
Q

What can the cloned T cells do in the cell mediated response?

A

Develop into T memory cells

83
Q

Process of humoral immunity

A

Activated T helper cells bind to the B cell APC in clonal selection

84
Q

Humoral immunity

A

When the body responds to antigens found outside the cells and APCs.

85
Q

What does the humoral immune system do?

A

To produce antibodies that are soluble in blood and tissue fluid but aren’t attached to cells

86
Q

General structure of antibodies

A

Made of two polypeptide chains called the heavy chains and two other chains called light chains

87
Q

How antibodies defend the body

A

Antibodies in the antigen-antibody complex can act as an opsonin so the complex is more easily engulfed

88
Q

How do agglutinins help?

A

They cause antigen-antibody complexes to clump together so they don’t spread through the body which makes it easier for the phagocytes to engulf a number of pathogens at the same time

89
Q

How do anti-toxins help?

A

They bind to the toxins produced by pathogens which makes them harmless

90
Q

How do opsonins help?

A

They bind to pathogens and tag them so they can be recognised by phagocytes as phagocytes have receptors on their cell membranes that bind to opsonins so they can engulf stuff

91
Q

Important opsonins

A

Immunoglobulin G

92
Q

Natural active immunity

A

The body has acted to produce its own antibodies and memory cells

93
Q

How does natural active immunity develop?

A

Meet a pathogen for the first time

94
Q

Active immunity

A

Body has acted to produce new antibodies and memory cells

95
Q

Example of natural passive immunity

A

Breastfeeding

96
Q

How does natural passive immunity develop?

A

First milk a mother makes is called colostrum which is high in antibodies

97
Q

When does natural passive immunity last until?

A

Until the baby starts to make its own antibodies

98
Q

How does artificial passive immunity develop (In the broadest sense of the word)?

A

Injecting antibodies into the bloodstream

99
Q

Examples of diseases that need artificial passive immunity to fight

A

Tetanus

100
Q

How does artificial active immunity develop?

A

Immune system of the body stimulated to make its own antibodies by a safe form of the antigen

101
Q

Stages of a vaccination

A

Pathogen made safe

102
Q

How can a pathogen be made safe?

A

Killed

103
Q

Example of pathogen made safe by killing or inactivation

A

Whooping cough

104
Q

Example of pathogen made safe by attenuated strain

A

Rubella

105
Q

Example of pathogen made safe by altered toxins

A

Diphtheria

106
Q

Example of a pathogen made safe by isolated pathogens

A

Influenza

107
Q

Example of a pathogen made safe by genetically engineered pathogens

A

Influenza

108
Q

Example of artificial active immunity

A

Routine vaccinations

109
Q

Autoimmune disease

A

When the immune system stops recognising self cells and starts to attack healthy body tissue

110
Q

Examples of autoimmune diseases

A

Type 1 diabetes

111
Q

Body part affected by type 1 diabetes

A

Pancreas

112
Q

Treatments for type 1 diabetes

A

Insulin injections

113
Q

Body part affected by Rheumatoid Arthritis

A

Joints

114
Q

Treatment for rheumatoid arthritis

A

No cure

115
Q

Body part affected by lupus

A

Skin

116
Q

Treatment for lupus

A

No cure

117
Q

Reasons for changes to vaccines

A

Different strains of a pathogen may have mutated so the antigens are different shapes

118
Q

Epidemic

A

When a communicable disease spreads rapidly to a lot of people at a local or national level

119
Q

Pandemic

A

When a disease spreads rapidly across a number of countries or continents

120
Q

Vaccines in epidemics/pandemics

A

Mass vaccination can prevent the spread of the pathogen into the wider population

121
Q

Herd immunity

A

When a significant number of people in the population have been vaccinated

122
Q

Why does herd immunity work?

A

There is minimal opportunity for an outbreak to occur

123
Q

Examples of drugs derived from bioactive compounds

A

Penicillin

124
Q

Source of penicillin

A

Mould growing on melons

125
Q

Function of penicillin

A

Antibiotic

126
Q

Source of docetaxel

A

Yew trees

127
Q

Function of docetaxel

A

Treatment of breast cancer

128
Q

Source of aspirin

A

Compounds from sallow bark

129
Q

Function of aspirin

A

Painkiller

130
Q

Personalised medicine

A

Combination of drugs that work with your individual combination of genetics and disease

131
Q

How is personalised medicine done?

A

Human genome is analysed

132
Q

Pharmacogenomics

A

Interweaving knowledge of drug actions with personal genetic material

133
Q

Example of pharmacogenomics

A

Breast cancer with mutation of HER2 gene can be shut down by trastuzumab and lapatinib

134
Q

Synthetic biology

A

Developing populations of bacteria or mammals that produce much needed drugs that would be too rare

135
Q

Nanotechnology

A

When tiny non-natural particles are used to deliver drugs to a very specific site within cells

136
Q

How penicillin was made an economically viable antibiotic

A

Grown from a mould by Alexander Fleming

137
Q

How scientists design drugs

A

Build up 3 dimensional models of key molecules in the body

138
Q

Examples of habitats being destroyed

A

Rainforests

139
Q

Need for maintenance of biodiversity

A

To make sure that we don’t destroy an organism that could be used in a life-saving drug

140
Q

Example of antibiotics being used to benefit society

A

At the beginning of the 20th century

141
Q

Benefits of antibiotics

A

Selectively toxic

142
Q

Selective toxicity

A

Interfering with the metabolism of bacteria without affecting the metabolism of human cells

143
Q

Disadvantage of antibiotics

A

Development of antibiotic resistance

144
Q

Causes of antibiotic resistance

A

Use in agriculture

145
Q

Where is antibiotic resistance a particular problem?

A

Hospitals

146
Q

Examples of antibiotic resistant bacteria

A

MRSA

147
Q

What is MRSA?

A

Bacterium carried by 30% of population on skin or in the nose

148
Q

Antibiotic used to treat MRSA

A

Methicillin

149
Q

What is C. difficile?

A

Bacterium in the guts of 5% of the population

150
Q

How is overuse of antibiotics causing problems with C. difficile?

A

Commonly used antibiotics will kill off gut bacteria so C. difficile can survive and reproduce and take hold

151
Q

How does antibiotic resistance develop?

A

Chance mutation in one bacterium makes it antibiotic resistant

152
Q

How to reduce antibiotic resistant infections

A

Minimise use of antibiotics

153
Q

Implications of antibiotic resistant bacteria

A

Death

154
Q

Site of production of B cells

A

Bone marrow

155
Q

Site of maturation of B cells

A

Bone marrow

156
Q

Site of production of T cells

A

Bone marrow

157
Q

Site of maturation of T cells

A

Thymus gland

158
Q

Structure of neutrophils

A

Multi-lobed nucleus

159
Q

Structure of antigen-presenting cells

A

Antigens released from a pathogen in phagocytosis are on the cell surface membrane bound to the MHC

160
Q

Major histocompatibility complex

A

Set of cell surface proteins used in recognising foreign molecules

161
Q

Role of the hinge region

A

To allow the antigen to bind to more than one antigen

162
Q

Role of the constant region

A

To bind to the phagocyte

163
Q

Role of disulfide bridges

A

To hold the heavy and light chains together

164
Q

Neutralisation

A

Antibody blocks binding sites to prevent the entry of the pathogen into a host cell

165
Q

Why does the secondary immune response take less time than the primary immune response?

A

Time for antigen presentation and clonal selection not required

166
Q

Why is there a gap in time between infection and appearance of antibodies?

A

Time for antigen presentation

167
Q

Parasite

A

An organism that lives in a host and causes it detriment

168
Q

Name of bacteria that causes tuberculosis

A

Mycobacterium

169
Q

Immune response

A

Response to antigens that involves lymphocytes

170
Q

How to identify a lymphocyte down a light microscope

A

Large nucleus

Biology: Module 4: Biodiversity, Evolution & Disease (3 decks)

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