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Economic & Consumer Psychology > College 8 > Flashcards

College 8 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are stereotypes?

A

Stereotypes are cognitive representations of a category of people, consisting of knowledge/assumptions about traits. They can be fake or wrong knowledge.

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2
Q

Can stereotypes have exceptions?

A

Yes, there is always room for exceptions in stereotypes.

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3
Q

Who introduced the concept of stereotypes as “pictures in our heads” in 1922?

A

Journalist Lippmann

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4
Q

What is the central tendency in traits in stereotypes?

A

The central tendency in traits refers to the idea that “most of the people in this group have these traits,” but there is room for variation on these traits.

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5
Q

What is the difference between exemplars and prototypes in stereotypes?

A

Exemplars are individuals who are part of a group, while prototypes are those who fit all of the traits typically associated with a particular category.

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6
Q

What do stereotypes encompass besides traits?

A

Stereotypes also include behaviors.

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7
Q

What are some elements included in stereotypes?

A

Stereotypes encompass exemplars (e.g., Einstein, Scherder, Coca-Cola) and typical behaviors (e.g., “teaching”).

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8
Q

How do humans and products differ in social categorization?

A

Humans are subject to social categorization, while products like Coca-Cola are not.

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9
Q

What is the difference between stereotypes and prejudice, explained by ABC?

A

If you have an affective (emotional) component, you are talking about prejudice.

Stereotypes are much more related to cognition.

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10
Q

What is the focus of stereotypes in terms of cognition?

A

Stereotypes are a cognitive representation of a group.

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11
Q

What are the components of prejudice?

A

Prejudice includes affect (emotional reactions) and negative affective reactions to outgroups.

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12
Q

What is discrimination?

A

Discrimination refers to behavior in the context of stereotypes and prejudice.

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13
Q

True or false: stereotypes are always negative

A

False. Stereotypes often include positive + negative traits.

Most stereotyping is “ambivalent”, but the negative aspects weigh more.

This is also quite often used as an excuse.

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14
Q

How are negative stereotypes often described?

A

Negative stereotypes are often described as prejudice.

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15
Q

Is it possible to have stereotypes about one’s own group?

A

Yes, stereotypes about in-groups are possible, but they usually do not lead to prejudice, and this occurrence is not very common. This is known as self-/auto-stereotyping.

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16
Q

What are implicit attitudes, and how are they activated?

A

Implicit attitudes involve the automatic activation of related components when one says something. They are measured indirectly and involve implicit, automatic associations with outgroup members.

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17
Q

What is an example of a test that measures implicit associations?

A

The Implicit Association Test (IAT).

It tests the associations that individuals have without their conscious control or awareness.

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18
Q

Name an illustration of an IAT.

A
  • Slap your left hand when you see a negative word and your right hand when you see a positive word.
  • Slap your left hand when you see a white Dutch person and your right hand when you see a Moroccan Dutch person.
  • Slap your left hand when you either see a white Dutch person or a positive word and slap your right hand when you either see a Moroccan Dutch person or a negative word.
  • Slap your left hand when you either see a white Dutch person or a negative word and slap your right hand when you either see a Moroccan Dutch person or a positive word.
  • You have a compatible block and an incompatible block. They measure in milliseconds how fast you react. If you make the association easily you will be faster.
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19
Q

What was the focus of the study related to the IAT on the self?

A

The study aimed to investigate the effects of advertising on self-perception, particularly in relation to body image (thin or overweight).

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20
Q

What were the conditions in the study regarding models and products?

A

In the study, participants were exposed to either healthy or unhealthy models and were presented with either healthy or unhealthy products.

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21
Q

How did the study regarding models and products demonstrate a product-model fit?

A

If people saw an overweight model promoting a healthy product, it would be a good product-model fit if the person saw themselves as healthy. If they would see themselves as overweight it had a lower product-model fit.

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22
Q

What conclusion can be drawn regarding self-perception and advertising with overweight models promoting healthy products for individuals who see themselves as overweight?

A

If someone perceives themselves as overweight and an overweight model promotes a healthy product, this approach is unlikely to work very well, as there is a mismatch in self-perception and the product being advertised.

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23
Q

How do stereotypes develop?

A

Stereotypes develop, in part, because humans have a natural tendency to categorize the world and the people in it.

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24
Q

What is social categorization?

A

Social categorization involves dividing the world into groups of people based on various characteristics.

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25
Q

Is categorization a natural and functional process?

A

Yes, categorization is a natural and functional process that serves practical purposes. For example, it makes tasks like grocery shopping more efficient.

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26
Q

How does social categorization lay the foundation for stereotyping?

A

By influencing how people perceive and remember information about different groups.

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27
Q

What is the “Who said what?” paradigm?

A

The “Who said what?” paradigm is a method used to study social categorization.

This is illustrated in a study where participants watch a discussion and are tasked to identify which participant made which statement.

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28
Q

What can you say about the study on the “Who said what?” paradigm?

A

The participants would watch 6 discussants

  • 3 men, 3 women; 3 younger 3 older
  • Everyone makes 5 statements
    o 30 in total, too many to remember

Task: who made which statement?

  • They made a lot of errors in this task; they switched a lot of people up.

Participants automatically categorize.

  • Categorization influences memory
    The mistakes they made say something about categorization.
  • For example, it’s easier to confuse discussants within a gender than between genders.
    o Intra-categorical error
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29
Q

What characteristics are commonly used for categorization?

A

Gender is often used for categorization, but so are age, ethnicity, and other characteristics that are “chronically accessible” for both self-description and categorization of others.

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30
Q

Intraclass/ interclass effect

A

Overestimate differences between categories.

Underestimate differences within categories.

31
Q

Outgroup homogeneity effect

A

Outgroup is generally seen as more homogenous than the ingroup.

This effect increases in competition.

This makes life much easier and much more certain.

32
Q

How does the content of stereotypes develop?

A

From personal experience

  • Illusory correlation

From hearsay (social learning)

  • Upbringing
  • Friends
  • Media
33
Q

What was the experiment by Hamilton & Gifford (1976) on group A vs. group B about?

A

Participants rated behavioural descriptions about group A and B.

There was twice as much information about group A than about group B.

The positive/negative information for both groups was in a 9/4 ratio (18/8 or 9/4).

Assessment of the groups on traits (e.g. helpful, aggressive).

34
Q

What were the results of the experiment by Hamilton & Gifford (1976) on group A and B? And how can this be explained?

A

Correlation group and positive/negative behaviour = 0.

Still, group B is assessed more negatively.

Explanation: the rarest behaviour (negative behaviour Group B) is rare, therefore more salient and therefore overestimated.

Explanation: The most common behaviour also stands out a lot, which is the positive behaviour of group A.

This can explain negative stereotypes about minority groups. Because minorities are with less, you probably have a lot less interactions with them, and thus you rate them as more negative.

35
Q

How can stereotyping arise from social learning?

A

Upbringing, friends and media.

36
Q

In an article they researched the percentage of women and men in a dependency role in advertisements. What were the results of this article?

A

In a lot of countries women were projected in dependent roles almost twice as often. But there was also a huge difference between countries. In Denmark and France for example, the difference was not so big.

So there is a really cultural difference about this.

36
Q

How did the Bart Smit contribute to stereotyping from social learning?

A

Bart Smit had advertisements where only girls would be shown playing with household toys.

This has changed in recent years.

37
Q

What were the results of a more recent scientific paper about inclusivity in advertisements in general? And what about the amount of black people on the catwalk?

A

Over the years there is a trend of more inclusivity in advertisement in general.

There is also a trend of more black people on the catwalk.

38
Q

What did the study by Weisbuch et al. (2009) about influence of the media look like? And what were the results?

A

First, there was a pilot study of 11 popular TV shows

  • Including CSI, Grey’s anatomy.
  • These are scripted tv shows.
  • They picked scenes with interracial interaction (white-black).

Participants had to rate the nonverbal behaviour of white actors in scenes involving white or black costars.

  • For instance eye contact, smiling, displays of ‘closeness’.

Outcome: White costars received more positive nonverbal behaviour.

  • Despite ‘scriptedness’ of the scene.

The actual study (based on the pilot): white participants watch scenes involving

  • Pro-white (anti-black) nonverbal behaviour.
  • Pro-black (anti-white) nonverbal behaviour.

After watching the scenes they did an IAT.

Outcome: people who watched pro-white clips have more problems with interracial scenes than people who watched pro-black clips.

39
Q

How can stereotypes be reinforced?

A

They can be reinforced by the confirmation bias and self-fulfilling prophecies.

40
Q

What is self-esteem influenced by?

A

Self-esteem is influenced by the status of the groups we identify with.

41
Q

What will threats to self-esteem lead to?

A

Derogation of other groups.

42
Q

Classic experiment: Klee vs. Kandinsky

A

Feel connected with a group as a consequence of social categorization.

43
Q

What are features of minimal groups?

A

No previous experience with the categorization.

No interaction between participants (in- or outgroup).

Categorization is anonymous.

No direct personal gains because there hasn’t been any previous interaction.

44
Q

What happens when people of minimal groups are asked to devide money between two people?

A

Between members of the same ingroup (Klee vs. Kandinsky): fair

Between members of the ingroup and one of the outgroup (Klee vs. Kandinsky): more money for ingroup member (ingroup favoritism)

45
Q

What did the second experiment on minimal groups show?

A

Second experiment showed that participants often wanted to maximize the difference between ingroup and outgroup.

  • Aim for equality/fairness, and social approval/ingroup favoritism.

If people are very competitive, you start to hate the other group and will divide the money by giving them the least you can give them and your group the most.

46
Q

What is the difference between how people make attributions towards people and how they make attributions towards brands?

A

There is no difference.

47
Q

Stereotype content model (Fiske)

A

Two basic dimensions of social perception:

  • Warmth (cooperation)
  • Competence (status)
48
Q

What is the equivalent for the stereotype content model for brands?

A

The BIAF

49
Q

Explain the four options for the stereotype content model and the BIAF.

A

Warm + competence = admiration

Warm + incompetence = sympathy

Cold + competence = envy

Cold + incompetence = disgust/contempt

If someone/something does not fit in these four categories, they are stigmas.

50
Q

What is the distinction in controlled and automatic stereotyping?

A

There is a distinction between:

  • Knowledge of the stereotype (cultural stereotype).
    o Often present in both low and high prejudice people (for instance through the media).
  • Whether person agrees with it (prejudice).
51
Q

Dissociation model (Devine)

A

Is about the controlled and automatic aspects of stereotyping.

Phase 1: stereotype activation

  • Automatic (for high and low prejudice people)
  • Even if you don’t think the stereotype is correct, it can still be activated.

Phase 2: stereotype application

  • Not necessarily automatic
  • Low prejudice people are much better at ignoring the stereotype than high prejudice people
    o Given sufficient cognitive capacity

Primary response: automatic

  • Limited cognitive resources
    o Time pressure during quiz

Secondary response: controlled

  • When there is enough cognitive capacity
  • When motivation is high enough
52
Q

What are some consequences of stereotyping?

A

Stereotyping can have consequences on judgments, such as in job interviews and lawsuits, especially when dealing with complex or ambiguous information.

53
Q

In what situations can stereotyping have a particularly strong impact on judgments?

A

When dealing with complex, ambiguous information, or when an individual has reduced cognitive capacity.

54
Q

What are some examples of reduced cognitive capacity that can lead to stereotyping?

A

Reduced cognitive capacity can result from situations with excessive information or when a person is tired.

55
Q

What was the experiment about modern racism in the workplace?

A

People were asked to rate a candidate, the CVs were exactly the same, but one was from a white person, and one was from a black person.

56
Q

How does the level of modern racism vary with the decision’s complexity?

A

The level of modern racism is less pronounced when the decision is very easy, but it becomes more apparent when the decision is ambiguous, showing a significant difference between black and white candidates.

57
Q

How is assertive behavior interpreted from a man? And from a woman?

A

In men, it is seen as self-confidence (positive), while in women, it may be viewed as being “bitchy” (negative).

58
Q

What is the experiment by Vorrell et al., (2002) about the shooter bias?

A

It was a virtual reality game. The task was to shoot the people who are armed and to not shoot the people who are unarmed.

The manipulations were:

  • Armed/unarmed
  • Target was black/white

The results were that if the target was unarmed, the participants were much more likely to shoot a black target than a white target. If the target was armed, the participants were much more likely to give the benefit of the doubt to the white target than the black target.

59
Q

How can the results from Vorrell et al. (2002) on the shooter bias be explained?

A

You often have to make a quick decision, which is exactly the type of situation in which you fall back on stereotypes.

60
Q

Which people are influenced by the shooter bias?

A

The shooter bias is present in police officers, even in African American officers.

They replicated the study in Germany, the participants were students. The manipulation here was not a black or white target but Arabs or white targets. The results were the same.

61
Q

Blatant (or ‘old-fashioned’) prejudice

A

Strong, explicitly communicated negative feelings towards outgroup.

  • E.g., hate and disgust.
  • Reduced by legislation and social norms.

People used to be more hesitant when it came to closer social circles. But with time this went away.

62
Q

Subtle (or ‘modern’) prejudice

A

More implicit

  • Micro-aggressions

More subtle

  • Distance between you and someone of a different colour.
  • Positive bias towards the in-group rather than rejection of the out-group.

Expressed when rationalization is possible

  • Women are rejected on the basis of body length, not because they are women.
  • They try to rationalize their decision.

Ambivalence (conflicting relations, beliefs or feelings towards something)

  • “I don’t have anything against homosexuals, but they shouldn’t kiss in public.”
  • But not hate or real fear or something like that.
63
Q

Micro-aggressions

A

Small things that you do or say, that don’t have the intention of hurting, but are still hurtful.

It’s much more about how the receiver interprets it than about the intention of the sender.

64
Q

Stereotype threat

A

Stereotype threat is the fear that one will be reduced to a stereotype in the eyes of others.

Stereotypes often relate to competence (performance). Members of the stereotyped group can confirm negative stereotype. This leads to ‘stereotype threat’ and can undermine performance.

The reactions to the threat can directly interfere with performance.

The threat can cause individuals to dismiss the domain as no longer relevant to their self-esteem and identity.

65
Q

What was the experiment by Steele & Aronson (1995) about stereotype threat?

A

There was a test with some questions that were supposed to determine intelligence and a test that was non-diagnostic. People back than thought black people were less smart than white people. This was shown in the results by black people scoring lower, but with the non-diagnostic test black people didn’t score that much lower than white people.

66
Q

What does every person strive for as a general self-image?

A

A general self-image as a good and honest person.

67
Q

How can a threat of self-image be compensated?

A

It can be compensated for on another dimension.

68
Q

How can a stereotype threat be reduced?

A

By increasing the general self-image.

69
Q

What were the results of the field study on stereotype threat and self-affirmation?

A

It was in an interracial school setting with affirmation as a manipulation.

The results are that by just thinking about positive affirmations, you can actually decrease the negative effect.

70
Q

Does suppressing stereotypes work?

A

There was an experiment on this that had two parts.

Part 1:
Write an essay that describes a day in the life of this person (a skinhead).

  • Experimental condition: try to not think in stereotypes.
  • Control condition.

Manipulation was effective: stereotype was avoided in the essays.

Part 2:
After the essay, participants had to wait in a waiting room

  • Seat containing jacket, ostensibly from a skinhead.
  • They would look at how far away people would take a seat from the seat with the jacket.

Here, the ‘rebound effect’ happened. The people that suppressed the stereotype sat further away from the seat than the people from the control condition.

This behavior is so subtle, that you don’t even know that you have a prejudice.

Rebound effect shows that suppressing stereotypes doesn’t really work for behavioural outcomes.

71
Q

What works to diminish stereotypes?

A

Goals

  • E.g., in shooter bias experiment: “If I see an unarmed person, I will not shoot.”
  • It has to be a very clear and easy goal.

Inter-group contact

  • Lots of conditions (e.g., equal status, common goals).
  • Does have a (moderate) positive effect.

Inter-group contact does effectively diminish stress.
If someone from the high implicit group would meet someone from the outgroup, they would have some cortisol as a reaction. But this decreases very fast with the numbers of meetings.

72
Q

How does diminishing stereotypes work?

A

Emotional:

  • Diminishes intergroup fear.
  • Positive effects on empathy for another group.

Cognitive:

  • Knowledge of other group (small effect; you would often think the person you met is an exception to the rule).
  • Change in social categorization: from different social identities to a common identity.
73
Q

Common ingroup identity model

A

Instead of us and them you make a we.

We: IG and OG

E.g., instead of Klee vs. Kandinsky lovers, together you are art lovers.

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