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Psychology 2A > Cognitive Psychology > Flashcards

Cognitive Psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

Attention

A

Allows us to focus on a particular stimuli and ignore other stimuli

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2
Q

External attention

A

Selection of information in our environment

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3
Q

internal attention

A

overlaps with other cognitive processes, selection of internally generated thoughts and sensations

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4
Q

Focused attention

A

ability to direct attention to chosen stimuli and maintain focus for a period of time

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5
Q

divided attention

A

sharing attentional resources between more than one task

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6
Q

shadowing

A

reproducing a message heard simultaneously while hearing other stimuli too

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7
Q

Broadbent’s Early selection model

A

Attention selection model in which 1 message is selected for progressing while the other stays in the filter buffer - filter for attention occurs early in the stream of information processing

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8
Q

Treisman’s Attenuation Theory

A

Attenuator that is a flexible filter that attenuates unattended material

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9
Q

Deutsch and Deutsch Late Selection Model

A

All information is processed for meaning and the selection only happens late at the level of memory

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10
Q

Resource theory: Kahneman 1973

A

attention is a limited resource which can be divided/directed aas required up to a maximum limit. Based on the idea of a central processing unit (CPU) and allows flexible attention across multiple inputs

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11
Q

Spotlight attention, La Berge 1983

A

Attention is a spotlight that we shine on things that we choose to see

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12
Q

Dual Task Paradigm

A

The successfullness of dividing attention between two things depends on their relation to each other. So, how far apart the atention and the processing requirements are within the model.
1. Processing stages: perception, cognition, responding
2. Processing modalities: visual, auditory
3. Codes for processing: spatial, verbal
4. Response: manual spatial, vocal spatial

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13
Q

working memory

A

“short-lived sensory information about multiple incoming stimuli, currently activated (primed) semantic concepts…limited capacity, attention-related system holding up to several chunks of information concurrently.” (Cowan et al. 2023)

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14
Q

successive discrimination

A

identify small change in a single target

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15
Q

simultaneous discrimination

A

change to one target within array of similar stimuli

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16
Q

cocktail party problem

A

describes how we successfully focus on one speaker in a background of noise and other conversations

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17
Q

top down

A

or conceptually driven processes reflect the influence of higher-order cognitive processes such as thoughts, beliefs and expectations

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18
Q

bottom up

A

stimulus-driven processing of incoming sensory information that produces increasingly elaborate and meaningful representations of the input

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19
Q

Prospective Memory

A

remember to carry out intended actions
works as cycle:
encoding (storing information) -> retention (retain information until needed) -> retrieval (at a suitable time, retrieve information from memory) ->
Execution (Act upon retrieved information) -> Evaluation (Was the plan successful? If not start cycle again)

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20
Q

Time-based prospective memory

A

Remember to carry out action at a specific time

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21
Q

Event-based prospective memory

A

Remember to carry out an action when circumstances are correct

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22
Q

Pulses

A

Event + time based
involve intention to act which are time locked

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23
Q

Intermediates

A

No event + time based
In between pulses and steps: somewhat attached to an event but no time

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24
Q

Steps

A

No event + no time base
Involve intention to do something with wide time frame

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25
Q

Interruptions to prospective memory

A
  1. Interruptions divert attention from task, often rapidly
  2. New task demands then diverts attention from original task
  3. We can’t always define where a new task ends, cueing a return to the original task
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26
Q

Preparatory attentional and memory processes (PAM) theory

A

successful prospective memory requires us to maintain a preparatory attentional/working memory response. Not automatic and constrained by working memory. Relies on retrospective memory to distinguish between target and non target actions

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27
Q

Autobiographical memory

A

memory for events in our life that were significant happenings and can extend back over decades about complex memories

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28
Q

Multi-process theory

A

Event-based prospective memory involves strategic and automatic monitoring. Some intentions will be retrieved spontaneously.

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29
Q

Episodic memory

A

a personal experience of events which happened at a specific time and place, trivial and short term

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30
Q
  1. Dimension of Autobiographical memory: autonoetic vs noetic memory
A

an experiental vs factual knowledge of self

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31
Q
  1. Dimension of Autobiographical memory: copies vs reconstructions
A

vivid memories with lots of irrelevant detail vs some memories that are not accurate and include interpretations made with hindsight which could influence how they’re remembered

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32
Q
  1. Dimension of Autobiographical memory: Generic vs specific memory
A

broad based general memory (e.g. location of family holiday and the experience) vs. a particular event that happened

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33
Q
  1. Dimension of Autobiographical memory: Field perspective vs Observer perspective
A

remembering event from one’s own perspective vs remembering event as an observer

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34
Q

Autobiographical memory knowledge base

A

life time periods, general events - repeated and single events, event-specific knowledge - images, feelings, details of general events (episodic memory)

35
Q

working self

A

where am I in life, what might i become, current goals? goals influence types of memories stored

36
Q

Infantile amnesia

A

inability to recall autobiographical memories from early childhood

37
Q

Reminiscence bumps

A

ability to recall a disproportionate number of auto biographical memories from adolescence and early adulthood

38
Q

category

A

set of objects/events/abstract entities that can be treated as equivalent in some way -> have some commonality

39
Q

concept

A

a mental representation of a category

40
Q

Definitional approach (classical view)

A

concepts are mentally represented as definitions -> rigid boundaries

41
Q

typicality (prototypical approach)

A

the extent to which an object is representative of a category
central = typical
peripheral = atypical

42
Q

family resemblance (prototypical approach)

A

the tendency for a category to be similar to one another but without having any one characteristic common to all of them

43
Q

prototype approach (probabilistic approach)

A

a prototype is an ideal example that best represents a category and other members of the category will be categorised in relation to this prototype (see graded membership)

44
Q

graded membership

A

objects close to the prototype (high in typicality) are “better” members of the category than objects further away from the prototype

45
Q

basic level of categorisation

A

superordinate-basic-subordinate
the natural level at which objects are named

46
Q

Exemplar Approach (probabilistic approach)

A

concepts are represented by stored examples alone; no prototype is assumed, represents variability in a category

47
Q

Ad hoc categories

A

Novel categories are constructed spontaneously to achieve goals

48
Q

goal derived categories

A

include ad hoc categories and categories that were once ad hoc but have become well-established in memory through frequent use

49
Q

Semantic Network Model

A

Each concept is represented as a node and nodes are linked by pathways. Memory retrieval involves spreading activation where it spreads from the originating node to all connected nodes

50
Q

Hub and Spoke Model

A

Semantic knowledge is processed in a neural network consisting of a central “hub” (lies in ATL) and modality-specific brain regions (“spokes”)

51
Q

Dual process theory

A

two systems
1. Automatic and fast processing, through use of heuristics, implicit processing
2. slow and serial processing with use of rules and algorithms, effortful and deliberate and controlled

52
Q

Bounded rationality

A

We aim to make rational judgements and decisions but are bounded by our cognitive limitations and our environment. we are rational within our cognitive limitations

53
Q

representativeness heuristic

A

the tendency to judge an item/person belonging to a specific category because the descriptions suggests that it/they are representative of that category

54
Q

conjunction fallacy

A

the tendency to judge the probability of a conjunction of two events occurring together as more likely than the likelihood of one of them happening

55
Q

causality heuristic

A

base-rate neglect depends on whether the task encourages people to use stereotypical information

56
Q

Availability heuristic

A

the tendency to judge the frequency or likelihood of events as more frequent/ likely the easier they can be retrieved from long-term memory

57
Q

fast and frugal heuristics

A

heuristics are adaptive and help overcome cognitive limitations, bounded rationality

58
Q

take the best heuristic

A

select the best option and ignore all others

59
Q

recognition heuristic

A

best option between several options is the one you recognise

60
Q

prospect theory

A

loss aversion, people are more sensitive to losses and aim to avoid those, than to gains

61
Q

framing effect

A

situational variables (e.g. phrasing of a problem can have an effect on decision making - even though they are irrelevant

62
Q

sunk-cost effect

A

tendency to continue with a course of action even though it has been suboptimal/unsuccessful because resources have been invested

63
Q

organisation (mnemonics)

A

organising information to be better remembered, connects info to existing knowledge

64
Q

Elaboration (mnemonics)

A

enriching with additional information, connects to prior knowledge and can be meaningful or non meaningful

65
Q

Mental imagery (mnemonics)

A

form of elaboration, interactive imagery, bizarre imagery is very effective

66
Q

Method of Loci

A

mental spatial location
imagining familiar location and putting images in places while walking through the location. During retrieval: mentally walk through “memory palace”

67
Q

Peg Word method

A

Pre-memorise a permanent set of memory pegs and hang memories on them

68
Q

link method

A

form images of items you wish to remember and link one image to the other, building a chain of images/story

69
Q

Ethanol

A

simple molecule which is used in alcoholic beverages that can easily pass through the blood brain barrier

70
Q

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD)

A

damage from alcohol caused prenatally
does not always present with physical characteristics (e.g. smooth upper lip and wide set eyes)
relies on self-report from mother

damage to developing brain - structural differences in neurogenesis and myelination

cognitive impacts:
reduction in intellectual abilities
attention deficits
specific FASD: shifting attention and encoding
executive functioning (behavioural and emotional self regulation, task switching, meta cognition)

71
Q

Alcohol Myopia Theory

A

mental short sightedness
increased focus on task (increased inhibition)
behaving in ways that are uncharacteristic

72
Q

alcohol induced memory black out

A

brain damage: anterograde amnesia (impairs memory from point of ‘injury’)
fragmentary MBO: able to recall things after cueing
En bloc MBO: not retrievable memory

73
Q

Attentional bias

A

focus threat inducing stimuli

74
Q

Dot probe task

A

used to assess selective attention
measures reaction time to emotionally negative or neutral stimuli by measuring the speed of attention allocation of the dot that replaces on stimulus

75
Q

interpretative bias

A

tendency to interpret ambiguous situations, stimuli as threats

76
Q

homophone task

A

presentation of words that sound the same but have different spellings and meanings -threatening versus non-threatening

77
Q

ambiguous scenarious

A

presentation of ambiguous scenarios to measure the number of threatening interpretations

78
Q

memory bias

A

tendency to recall negative memories/info/details compared to positive neutral ones (explicit and implicit)

79
Q

combined cognitive bias hypothesis

A

cognitive biases are interlinked and influence each other

80
Q

cognitive vulnerability hypothesis

A

the tendency to make negative inferences about the causes, consequences and self implications of negative life events
development of anxiety/depression as a function of disposition to negative cognitive patterns

81
Q

attentional control theory (ACT) Eyseneck et al. 2007

A

bias towards threats, reduced WM capacity, inhibition control deficiency, Poor attention shifting

2 systems: top down (goal directed), bottom up (stimulus driven)

anxiety disrupts top-down attention -> distracted by threatening stimuli

82
Q

impaired cognitive control (joorman et al, 2007)

A

rumination
EF doesn’t inhibit rumination
-> shifting/switching WM, inhibition
-> hampers flexible adaption of cognition and behaviour and hinders emotional regulation

83
Q

load theory

A

(Lavie, 2005)

the amount of processing an unattended stimulus receives depends on how difficult it is to attend to the target of attention

two types of load:
perceptual load (complexity and amount of stimuli, e.g. searching for friend in crowded space vs finding keys on an empty table)
cognitive load (demands on WM and EF, e.g. solving complex math problem vs recognizing familiar face)

Psychology 2A (5 decks)

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