Cognitive Dissonance

Question 1

Impact Bias

Answer 1

Overestimating the intensity and duration of negative emotional reactions when negative events happen.

Question 2

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Answer 2

The discomfort felt when either
1. Two cognitions (beliefs, attitudes) conflict, or
2. Behaviour and cognition conflict
due to the desire to be consistent.

Question 3

How do we reduce cognitive dissonance?

Answer 3

1. Change our behaviour so we are consistent with our cognition, or
2. Change our cognition so that the cognition is consistent with our behaviour, or
3. Add new cognitions to justify our behaviour - especially if the behaviour has many negative outcomes and it is very difficult to change the behaviour.
   - + self-affirmation

Question 4

Self Affirmation

Answer 4

Reminding oneself of positive attributes to reduce cognitive dissonance

Question 5

Why do we change our cognition?

Answer 5

Due to…

1. Post Decision Dissonance
2. Decision Permanence
3. Effort Justification

Question 6

Post Decision Dissonance

Answer 6

(Brehm’s 1956 fabulous prize study)
Spreading of alternatives occurs when we enhance the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devalue the rejected alternatives to reduce dissonance.

Question 7

Decision Permanence

Answer 7

(Knox & Inkster’s 1968 horse betting study)
We are more confident or happier when making a bigger decision due to the changing in cognition and justification made for our behaviour that had finalised the decision.

Question 8

Decision Irrevocability

Answer 8

This increases dissonance and the motivation to reduce it, and is manipulated through lowballing, the tactic of offering a low sale price before inflating the price greatly which often works due to the reduction in dissonance in the buyer.

Question 9

Polarising of Morality

Answer 9

(Mills’ 1958 cheating study)

On-the-fence attitudes about morality may be polarised upon making a moral or immoral decision.

Question 10

Effort Justification

Answer 10

(Aronson & Mills’ 1959 imitation study)
The goal or experience may appear more attractive in an originally undesirable scenario due to the increased effort we put in to go through it.

Question 11

Where is the inconsistency coming from?

Answer 11

1. Similarly moderately attractive alternatives
   - being able to recognise the cons of the alternative and the pros of the chosen
2. Differential in the effort put in

Question 12

External Justification

Answer 12

Reason or explanation for dissonant personal behaviour that resides outside the individual, external rewards and punishers.

Question 13

Internal Justification

Answer 13

Reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself

Question 14

Counterattudinal Advocacy

Answer 14

It occurs when we claim to have an opinion or attitude that differs from our true beliefs. What we believe begins to conform more to our lie when there is

1. Little external justification or
2. Insufficient punishment

Question 15

Insufficient Justification

Answer 15

(Festinger & Carlsmith’s 1959 $1 or $20 study)
External justification acts as a new cognition when we experience dissonance, but if the external justification is not sufficient to justify the initial inconsistency, we will change one of the two original cognitions instead in order to reduce dissonance.

Question 16

Insufficient Punishment

Answer 16

(Aronson & Carlsmith’s 1963 toy study)
When the external punishment is mild, self-justification through changing an initial cognition will result in self-persuasion, which is a longer-lasting change in attitude.

Question 17

Hypocrisy Induction

Answer 17

(Aronson, Fried & Stone’s 1991 condom study)
One may judge others more harshly while believing themself as being more virtuous. Making one aware of the dissonance between their behaviour and what they are preaching to others will change their hypocritical behaviour.

Question 18

Self Concept in Cognitive Dissonance

Answer 18

Dissonance is most painful and we are the most motivated to reduce it when one of the cognitions is about the self, in order to be accurate and feel good about oneself.
Dissonance may cause conflicting emotions due to the inconsistencies in different self-guides, and may stem from a threat to our self-esteem.

Question 19

Self Verification Theory

Answer 19

The need for accuracy will motivate us to seek more feedback when we face conflicting cognitions.

Question 20

Self Affirmation Theory

Answer 20

The need for a positive self-concept will cause us to focus on good qualities instead. Dissonances for Asians relate more to the family and social circles.

Question 21

Self Discrepancy Theory

Answer 21

When we observe a disparity between our ideal self - usually internalised from societal norms or expectations - and actual self, anxiety arises.

Question 22

Self Esteem Maintenance Theory

Answer 22

The need to maintain a high self-esteem will cause us to face high tension when we perform worse when

1. The source of comparison is a closer other
2. The area of comparison is more relevant to oneself