Cognitive approach Flashcards
Types of LTM
Semantic - facts declarative - recollection of events
Implicit memory - expressed through actions, habits, unconscious
MSM
Multi-store Model of memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin), assumes memory consists of multiple components,
Sensory memory — attention -> STM —> rehearsal / retrieval <— LTM
Sensory memory
Lasts around 2 - 5s,
STM
max 30s, it can store about 7 +/-2 chunks of information (grouped, Milner)
LTM
Potentially unlimited capacity and duration
Primacy effect vs Recency effect
Beginning - rehearsed more, paid more attention to
End - info is still in the STM (doesn’t work with an interfering task)
Serial position effect
peoples tendency to recall the first and last information from a list
Shallow processing
focuses on the wording, superficial
Deep processing
Focuses and elaborates on the meaning (images, associations)
H.M. Milner
(A/M/P/F)
Aim: Investigating the role of the Hippocampus in memory formation
Research method: case study
Procedure: Method triangulation - observations, psychometric testing, interviews, neuroimaging / Data triangulation - HM and family
Findings: The hippocampus plays an important role in transporting information from STM —> LTM
Glanzer & Cunitz (A/M/P/F)
Aim: Examining whether the serial order of words affects recall
Research method: lab study (no random allocation)
Procedure: Participants were randomly allocated to 2 conditions and shown lists of 15 words:
1 - immediate free recall
2 - free recall after an interference task (3-2-1)
Findings: 1- recalled the first 5 and last 3 words best
2 - recalled mainly the first couple of words
HM link
Shows that STM and LTM are separate stores
Glanzer and Cunitz link
Shows that memory is stored in multiple stores
HM +/-
- low reliability
- low external v
+ internal validity - longitudinal, method triangulation (multiple methods - comparison of data collected diff)
Glanzer & Cunitz +/-
- low ecological validity
- low population validity - army enlisted males
+ lack of confounding variables - highly controlled settings
MSM limitations
Oversimplified - doesn’t account for different processing techniques or how components interact with eachother
Doesn’t explain - memory phenomena (distortion, schemas), why some information is easily learned etc.
Individuals memory varies
Dual-task technique
2 tasks, if performance score lowers when done simultaneously it means they are competing for the same class of cognitive resources
Working memory model
Boddeley and Hitch
Central executive —> Phonological loop / VIsuo-spatial sketchpad / episodic buffer —> LTM
Phonological loop
The inner ear - holds someone’s speech
The inner voice - visual to auditory, pronounces words subvocally, repeats information (rehearsal)
Central executive
assigns resources to its slave systems, gives attention and priority to some tasks
WMM +/-
+ explains multitasking, the components of STM
+ its more detailed, better approach to discussing memory
- doesn’t explain memory phenomena (distortion, schemas)
- its a complex model, making it hard to test empirically
KF - Warrington & Shallice
Aim: Investigating the relationship between STM and LTM
Research method: Case study, longitudinal
Procedure: memory recall tests, both visual (lists) and auditory (verbal and non)
Findings: KF was able to remember information presented to him visually, but not verbal info presented orally.
KF link
Supports the existence of the Visuo-spatial sketchpad
Landry and Bartling (A/M)
Aim: Investigating whether articulatory suppression would affect the recall of a list of dissimilar letters in serial recall
Method: Lab experiment
Landry and Bartling (P/F)
Procedure: Independent samples, individually shown letters: experimental - articulatory suppression task, memorising a list of letters (1-2) control - saw the list Presented a list: ex - 1-2 control - just serial recall
Findings: Experimental group scored much lower
Landry and Bartling link
Supports the existence of the phonological loop, shows that information is rehearsed subvocally by the inner voice and can’t do that when it is overloaded
Schemas
cognitive structures, derived from past experiences and knowledge, beliefs, they are culturally specific, may vary within, simplify reality
Schema theory
Our memory is affected by our prior experiences, knowledge, beliefs, culture based on which we create expectations
Brewer and Treyens
Aim: Investigating the role of schemas (namely office schemas) on memory creation and retrieval
Method: Field experiment
Procedure: participants were sat in an office for 35s, 3 conditions - verbal recall / drawing recall / verbal recognition, Independent sample, opportunity sampling
Findings: The participants better recalled schema-congruent than schema-ingruent items
Bartlett Native American story link
Shows cognitive schemas are culturally specific (british sample)
Bartlett „War of the ghosts”
Aim: Examining whether schemas affect our memory of a story
Method: Qausi-experiment, independent
Procedure: 2 conditions:
Repeated reproduction (repeating the story over time)
Serial reproduction (telling the story to another person)
Findings: no significant difference between conditions.Memory is an active process that shows that memory is retrieved and changed to match existing schemas.
Brewer and Treyens link
Supports the existence of schemas
Anderson and Pichert
Aim: examining the relationship between schemas and memory encoding and retrieval
Procedure: half burglar, half someone who wants to buy the house half of both groups ex - schema switching for the recall, control - same schema
Results: Schemas can assist recall and may affect how memories are encoded. When asked to recall a description of items in the house the participants - if they had been asked to switch for the second recall task, were able to remember more than those who used the same schema for the second recall
Loftus & Palmer (A/M/P/F)
Aim: Investigating reconstructive memory, whether a memory can be affected by post-event information and wording of the question
Method: True experiment
Procedure: 5 groups of 9, watched 7 car crashes, describe the accident + questionnaire (how fast when the car smashed/hit etc.?)
Findings: The word used in the leading question influenced the speed estimate, highest - smashed, lowest - contacted
Loftus & Palmer link
specific words can activate schemas
Loftus & Pickrell
Aim: Determining if the power of suggestion can affect ones memory of autobiographical events
Method: Qausi-experiment
Procedure: Data triangulation - A parent or sibling of the participant was contacted and asked to retell 3 childhood memories of the participant, as well as if the participant had ever been lost in a mall. Questionnaire - 3 real events, 1 false (getting lost in the mall), Q twice in 4 weeks - memory + confidence 1-10
Findings: 25% recalled the false memory, less confident.
Loftus & Pickrell link
reconstructive memory - It is possible to create false memories through suggestion
Bahrick et al
Aim: Investigating whether time influences the reliability of our autobiographical memory, duration of LTM
M: Field experiment
P: 392 aged 17-74, graduated highschool, 5 tests: 1.free recall, randomly assigned -photo recognition, name recognition, matching tests
(Name to photo), picture cueing test (10 photos, write down names)
F: Identifying faces and names was more accurate (15 yrs especially), than free recall (naming as many ppl)
Yuille & Cutshall
A: Investigating whether leading questions can affect someone’s memory of an event
M: Field experiment
P: 13 eyewitnesses of a murder, after 4 months, described the scene + 2 leading Q (did they see a / the broken headlight? The / a yellow panel on the car?), rate their stress 1-7
F: 10 answered accurately to the reports (no or didn’t notice), Eyewitness testimonies are reliable
SAQ
- Describe the model
- Aim, method, procedure, findings of supporting study
- Link to the model
Brown & Kulik
A: To investigate whether surprising and emotionally significant events can cause FBMs
M: Questionnaires - correlational study
P: B&W Americans, Q from home assignment, death of public figures - Martin Luther King, Malcolm X
R: Found that over 90% of participants recalled the details about the day, when the events happened. They perfectly recalled the death of a loved one. 75% black participants had FBMs on the murder of black leaders, compared to 33% of white p (personal relevance).
Neisser and Harsh
A: Check whether FBMs are susceptible to distortion
M: Longitudinal, case study
P: Questionnaire - set of Q about the Challenger disaster, Less than 24h / 2.5 yr (+ semi-structured interview + confidence)
F: There were huge discrepancies between the og responses and those submitted 2.5 yrs later.
Neisser & Harsh - what does it challenge
The assumption of the FBM theory as it shows that FBMs are special only in their perceived accuracy.
Dual Process Model
Divided into System 1 and System 2 thinking, by Kahreman
Heuristics
Simplified decision making strategies, quick, don’t guarantee a correct answer
System 1
- automatic
- bases on assumptions
- everyday decision making
- not logic based
- high cognitive load
- time pressure
System 2
- complex thinking
- conscious
- rational
- requires more effort
- interprets all possibilities
