Cognitive Approach

Question 1

Cognitive Approach

Answer 1

Focuses on how mental processes, such as thoughts, perceptions, memories, reasoning and attention affect behaviour; intends to build cognitive models to study the mind as an information processor

Question 2

Internal mental processes

Answer 2

Operations of the mind (e.g. perception, attention) that mediate between the stimulus and response. They are private and cannot be observed directly.

Question 3

Schema

Answer 3

A cognitive (mental) framework of beliefs and expectations that help us to organise and interpret information in the brain. They are developed from experience and help us to make sense of new information. They are used as a reference point to help us respond appropriately.

Question 4

Inference

Answer 4

Going beyond the immediate evidence to make assumptions about mental processes that cannot be directly observed i.e. conclusions are indirectly drawn about the way internal mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour.

Question 5

Cognitive neuroscience

Answer 5

The scientific study of the brain / neurological structures that are responsible for cognitive / mental / thinking processes.

Question 6

The assumptions of the cognitive approach

Answer 6

1. Behaviour is influenced by both conscious and unconscious thoughts - these internal mental processes can and should be studied scientifically and objectively
2. Internal processes studied by cognitive psychologists include perception, attention, memory, language, thinking and problem-solving
3. Humans are information processors because our internal mental processes extract, store and retrieve information that helps us to guide our behaviour - the processing of humans can be compared to that of a computer.
4. Models can be used to create testable theories about mental processes to be studied scientifically
5. However, we can’t study the processes directly because they are private, and so they’re studied indirectly and inferences are made on the basis of observed behaviour
6. Cognitions and biological processes can be integrated leading to cognitive neuroscience as a way of understanding behaviour

Question 7

How schemas develop

Answer 7

• Babies are born with simple motor schema e.g. grapsing schema
• As we get older and have more experience, our schema become more detailed and sophisticated
• They can change through assimilation - new information is incorporated into pre-existing schemas
• They can change through accomodation - existing schemas can be altered or new schemas might be formed as a person learns new information and experiences
• They become increasingly rigid and difficult to change as we get older, and can persist even when people are presented with evidence that contradicts those beliefs (schema can slowly change with inundation of evidence encouraging modification)

Question 8

How are schemas helpful

Answer 8

• They help us to process a lot of information quickly which is useful as a sort of mental shortcut that stops us being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli
• Rapid information processing and fast thinking
• Simplification of environment

Question 9

How are schemas unhelpful

Answer 9

• They exclude anything that doesn’t fit our established ideas of the world; therefore, we may develop stereotypes that are difficult to disconfirm, even with new and conflicting information
• They can distort our interpretations of sensory information leading to perceptual errors

Question 10

Using laboratory experiments - strengths

Answer 10

• Scientific and objective methods lead to controlled experiments and reliable results - this means that the study of the mind has established a credible, scientific basis

Question 11

Using laboratory experiments - weaknesses

Answer 11

• Direct observation of internal mental processes is not possible - inferences have to be made which can be mistaken
• The tasks in laboratory experiments are rarely how behaviour usually occurs - this is because studies are designed to make measurement possible; therefore the research collects data only related to mental processing in experimental conditions and research on cognitive processes may lack ecological validity as a result

Question 12

Models

Answer 12

• A theoretical model is a simplified, usually pictorial, representation of a particular mental process - they often include boxes and arrows to show cause and effect or the stages of a particular mental process
• It is based on available evidence e.g. experiments
• A model provides an analogy of how mental processes work

Question 13

Computer models

Answer 13

• When computer analogies are used as a representation of human cognition, suggesting that there is a similarity in the way information is processed
• Key assumption - the brain processes information like a computer
  1. Central processing unit - brain
  2. Coding - turning information into a useable format
  3. Stores - to hold different chunks of information
  4. Output - observable behaviour

Question 14

A computer model of memory

Answer 14

Input (from environment via senses)
Processing / storage (info is coded on neural connections in the brain, processes using schemas, combined with previously stored information (hard disk = LTM, RAM = STM)
Output (observable behaviour)

Question 15

Cognitive neuroscience as a developed branch of cognitive pscyhology

Answer 15

• Neuroimaging techniques such as scans have enabled psychologists to systematically observe and understand how the brain supports different cognitive activities and emotions by showing what parts of the brain become active in specific circumstances
• Research by Tulving et al shows different types of LTM (semantic and episodic) may be located on opposite sides of the prefrontal cortex. Central executive is thought to reside in a similar area.
• Research has also found a link between the parahippocampal gyrus and OCD - it appears to play a role in unpleasant emotions, helping psychologists understand how different brain areas create mental health issues and mental illness

Question 16

Applications of cognitive neuroscience

Answer 16

• Use of scanning / imaging techniques to locate different types of memory in different areas of the brain leading to treatment for memory problems
• Use of scanning / imaging to study mental processing patients with mental illness or patients with autism and ADHD
• Use of imaging and angiography to study the effects of normal aging on the brain or to observe the effects of strokes
• Use of computer simulations / modeling to test theories or hypotheses about mental processes such as attention etc
• Use of computer modeling to develop voice recognition programs and use of eye-tracking / motion-tracking to study visual word processing and reading

Question 17

The features of the cognitive approach

Answer 17

• The assumption that behavior can be influenced by both conscious and unconscious thoughts and internal mental processes
• These mental processes are information processing systems, with the processing being explained through the analogy of the computer model, comparing human and computer information processing
• Schema are the mental representation of experience, knowledge and understanding
• Models can be used to provide testable theories about mental processing and these can be studied scientifically and inferences made
• Cognition and biological processes can be integrated leading to cognitive neuroscience as a way forward to understanding human behavior
• Methodology - use of controlled experimentation, inference about mental processes on the basis of observable behavior (studied scientifically)

Question 18

Limitations of the cognitive approach

Answer 18

• The approach can be seen as mechanical in regarding human thinking or processing like the computer leaving little room for the irrationality seen in emotional behaviors
• Focus on detail of exactly what can be recalled by participants in controlled experiments and environments means an understanding of everyday use of memory, for example, is missing from explanations, leading to generalizations
• The process of inference may be too far-fetched in explaining thinking
• Issue with soft determinism and little room given for processes other than internal mental events affecting behavior such as biology
• Research findings indicate factors other than internal mental processes as causes of behavior
• Use of self-report as a method of data collection and the subsequent issues of subjectivity
• The focus on individual mental processes such as attention means we do not fully understand how mental events work together

Question 19

Cherry’s study (1953)

Answer 19

Taught us how selective attention affects how and what information is stored in the memory by conducting a study to investigate the human ability to ‘tune in’ to one person in their environment and ‘tune out’ everything else. it was found that what we pay attention too we remember, and what we ignore we don’t, showing how the processes of memory and attention interact.

Question 20

Evaluating the approach - strengths

Answer 20

• It has many applications - for example, the cognitive approach to psychopathology has been able to explain dysfunctional behavior in terms of faulty thinking processes; this has led to the development of treatments for mental illness with cognitive based therapies (CBT)
  - These treatments, which aim to change dysfunctional ways of thinking, have shown to be successful in some mental disorders, suggesting that emphasis on mental processes to explain mental disorders is valid
• It can be considered scientific - although cognitive psychologists create theories and models of behavior, they do this as a result of experimentation with human participants; this means that conclusions are based on more than common sense and introspection (more accurate)
  - Therefore, the approach can be seen as systematic, objective and rigorous way for reaching accurate conclusions about how mind and behavior works

Question 21

Evaluating the approach - weaknesses

Answer 21

• Major limitation - use of computer models; uses language such as encoding and storage for the mind, which is borrowed concepts from computer explanations for processing - however, they are important differences between the human mind and computer programs as humans possesses motivation and emotion, whereas information processing machines do not
• The cognitive approach also ignores important factors - although the cognitive approach tells us how cognitive processes take place, they do not tell us why - the role of emotion and motivation are largely ignored
  - this may be a result of the computer analogy and over-dependence of this approach on information-processing analogies e.g. human minds make mistakes, can forget and are able to ignore available information where necessary, all of which are fundamental differences

Question 22

Origins of cognitive neuroscience

Answer 22

Observes brain function in terms of how the brain works with the connectivity models, both in terms of anatomical and functional pairings, which evolved from original theories of the localized and distributed models, which respectively believed that functions were found in a specific area and functions were found in a range of areas that all worked and interacted to create behavior / functions

Question 23

The Multi-Store Memory model

Answer 23

• Theoretical; employs a visual diagram to model memory and the transitions of information from one store to another
• It represents different types of memory (sensory register, short-term memory, long-term memory) in different boxes with arrows showing how information is transferred from one to another
• Helps the visualisation of information transfer, and helps explain the different formats of memory
• Gives a good indication and understanding of the structure and process of STM, accounting for primary and recency effects and provides evidence to support STM an LTM distinctions in terms of encoding, duration and capacity

Question 24

The ‘thinking machines’ model

Answer 24

• In the creation of Artificial Intelligence, the brain is considered to be like a central processing unit, and the concepts of coding (turning information into a useable format) and stores (ways to hold information) are used
• This is a computer model, using computer language and the computer analogy
• Shows how human memory processing can be explained with comparison to computer processing and the concepts applied to explain human memory processing are used for the AI
• Helps to create AI systems based on a combination of human and computer processing, using the similarities of both to create the AI memory and processing system

Question 25

The Working Memory Model

Answer 25

• Theoretical model that uses pictorial methods to visualise the way that memory works and how the different stores interact with one another to enable tasks to be completed
• This model suggests our temporary memory for a task we are currently working on consists of a number of different stores (in different boxes) with arrows showing how they work together to enable tasks to be completed
• A representation of how tasks are carried out, allowing us to see how individual internal processes with memory interact
• Helps us understand the role of STM in it’s different stores - explains in more depth than the multi-store model by making sense of a range of tasks such as verbal reasoning, comprehension, reading, problem-solving and visual spatial processing
• STM is shown to be made up of a number of components or subsystems

Question 26

How did Cognitive Psychology come to be formed as an approach?

Answer 26

Emerged in the 1950’s with Cherry and due to some key factors:

1. Dissatisfaction with the behaviorist approach in its simple emphasis on external behavior rather than internal processes.
2. The development of better experimental methods.
3. Comparison between human and computer processing of information.

Question 27

Albert Ellis - dysfunctional behavior model (ABC model)

Answer 27

• Computer model which explains dysfunctional behavior in terms of fault thinking processes
• An activating event (A) leads to a belief (B) which leads to a consequence (C)
• It explains how irrational thoughts lead to depression, and therefore helps psychologists understand the formation of mental illness, dysfunctional behavior and mood disorders based on irrational interpretations of events that create unhealthy emotional outcomes
• Computer as it discusses the idea of faulty processing, much how a virus would affect computer processing systems, and also the idea of an input-processing-output system often found in computer processing units