Cognition: Learning

Question 1

Define: Learning

Answer 1

A relatively permanent change, often of behaviour, that occurs as a result of experience.

Question 2

Define: stimulus-response

Answer 2

Changes in observed behaviours are a result of the environment in which learning occurs.

Learn by responding to environment.

Question 3

Define: Classical Conditioning

Answer 3

Learning caused by the pairing, or association of, two stimuli.

An association forms between two stimuli, one of which is not normally associated with the desired response, such that the appearance of that stimulus alone results in the desired response behaviour.

Question 4

Phases of Classical Conditioning

Answer 4

1. Before: UCS => UCR, NS = no effect
2. During: NS + UCS, NS => CS => CR
3. After: CS => CR without UCS

Question 5

Define: Acquisition

Answer 5

Initial stage of learning when a response is first established and strengthened.

The NS and UCS must be paired close together in time to learn behaviour through classical conditioning.

Question 6

Define: Stimulus generalisation

Answer 6

Responds to new stimuli in a way similar to the original CS.

A stimulus similar to the CS triggers the CR.

Question 7

Define: Extinction

Answer 7

Diminishing of a CR when the CS is not followed by UCS.

Not complete elimination of the CR, just suppressed.

Strength of the connection between the two stimuli is weakened to reverse the learning.

Question 8

Define: Spontaneous recovery

Answer 8

Experimentally extinguished response returns after break in the session of conditioning.

Reappearance of a CR following apparent extinction.

Question 9

Define: Stimulus discrimination

Answer 9

Response to a specific stimulus is learned but not produced by new stimuli similar to CS.

Question 10

Pavlov’s Dog

Answer 10

◦ Wanted to know what called anticipatory salivation in dogs to stimuli associated with food
◦ Placed food powder (UCS) in dogs mouth, paired with sound of a bell (NS), measured amount of saliva (UCR)
◦ After several pairings of NS and UCS, gave sound of bell alone
◦ Dog salivated (CR) at bell (CS) alone
◦ Salivation at sound of bell considered conditional on pairing with UCS.

Question 11

Little Albert

Answer 11

◦ J.B Watson
◦ Emotions are learned
◦ White rat (NS) + loud noise (UCS)
◦ Loud noise (UCS) = fear (UCR)
◦ After several pairings, white rat (CS) = fear (CR)
◦ Little Albert later generalised fear of white rats to similar stimuli, e.g, beard and fur coat.

Question 12

Define: Operant Conditioning

Answer 12

Behaviour operates on the environment to generate consequences

Learning explained by its consequences

Association between a behaviour and a consequence for it.

Question 13

E.L Thorndike

Answer 13

◦ 1874-1949
◦ Animals learn responses through experiencing consequences
◦ behaviours can be learned if the consequences are rewarded

Question 14

Define: law of effect

Answer 14

Animals repeat responses that are rewarded and drop others that are punished

Question 15

Define: schedule of reinforcement

Answer 15

Reinforcement provided at fixed intervals or ratios, or variable intervals or ratios

1. Continuous reinforcement
2. Fixed-ratio schedule
3. Fixed-interval schedule
4. Variable-ratio schedule
5. Variable-interval schedule

Question 16

Define: continuous reinforcement

Answer 16

Delivery of a reinforcement each time response occurs

Quick learning
Low response rate
Quick extinction

Question 17

Define: fixed-ratio schedule

Answer 17

Responses reinforced after specific number of responses occurred

Steady response rate

Question 18

Define: fixed-interval schedule

Answer 18

Reinforcement only occurs after certain interval of time has passed

Steady response rate

Question 19

Define: variable-ratio schedule

Answer 19

Reinforcement delivered after variable number of responses occurred

High response rate
Low extinction rate

Question 20

Define: variable-interval schedule

Answer 20

Reinforcement delivered after variable amount of time

Fast response rate
Low extinction rate

Question 21

Skinner’s Box

Answer 21

◦ operant presses lever
◦ food = reinforcement
◦ hungry rats quickly learned pressing lever dispenses food
◦ light added later
◦ lever pressed + light = food
◦ no light = no food
◦ rats learned to press lever until light came on
◦ light = secondary reinforcer => increased frequency of pressing lever

Question 22

Define: Observational Learning

Answer 22

New behaviour learned or modified through watching others and copying their behaviours, or after watching consequences of behaviour of others

Modelling, imitation, shaping, vicarious reinforcement

Question 23

Define: reciprocal determinism

Answer 23

Not only does the environment cause the behaviour and learning, but behaviour can also change the environment

Question 24

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Answer 24

Learning occurs through observing actions of others and reinforcement doesn’t always come from external sources

Own mental state and motivation influence learning.

Question 25

Define: Intrinsic reinforcement

Answer 25

Internal rewards

Pride, satisfaction, sense of accomplishment

Question 26

Steps in Observational Learning

Answer 26

1. Attention
2. Retention
3. Motor reproduction
4. Motivation

Question 27

Define: attention

Answer 27

Must pay attention to learn

Interesting or attractive model, novel aspect to situation, distinctive behaviour, model similar to learner.

Question 28

Define: retention

Answer 28

Coding and categorising behaviour to be modified. Recall information later and act on it.

Question 29

Define: motor reproduction

Answer 29

Performing modelled behaviour

Physical skills, capabilities and limitations => extent and accuracy of modelling

Practise => improvement and skill advancement.

Question 30

Define: motivation

Answer 30

Rewards and reinforcements from self and others

Experiencing motivators

Watching others experience consequences

Question 31

Factors increasing observational learning

Answer 31

1. Model is warm and nurturing
2. Model rewarded for behaviour
3. Model is an authority figure
4. Model is of higher social status
5. Model perceived as similar to observer
6. Observer previously rewarded for imitating the behaviour
7. Observer lacks confidence in own knowledge and abilities
8. Situation is confusing or unclear

Question 32

Bobo Doll

Answer 32

◦ 24 children watched male/female model attack toy in distinctive manner
◦ 24 children watched model play quietly for 10 minutes
◦ Children taken individually to to room of toys they couldn’t play with => ‘mild aggression arousal’ to increase frustration
◦ Taken to another room with aggressive and non-aggressive toys for 20 minutes
◦ Children who observed aggressive model displayed more aggressive behaviours.