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Cognition Flashcards

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1
Q

Cognition

A

Psychological concepts and processes associated with memory and their relationship to behaviour. “higher” mental processes such as thinking, conceptualising, memory, reasoning etc

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2
Q

Memory

A

Structures and processes involved in the storage and subsequent retrieval of information. Means by which we draw on our past experiences to use this information in the present.

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3
Q

Multi Store Model (Atkinson and Shriffren)

A

Proposed that memory consisted of three stores: a sensory register, STM and LTM.

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4
Q

What does the multi store model consist of?

A
  • Capacity: how much information can be stored
  • Function: what is done with the stored information
  • Duration: period of time information can last in the memory stores
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5
Q

Capacity, Function, Duration of STM

A

30 seconds, 7+-2, holds info for further processing/rehearsal and is mainly auditory.
STM is thoughts, words and images are available for decision making and problem solving

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6
Q

Capacity, Function, Duration of LTM

A

infinite, infinite, ”permanent” store of all knowledge/ mainly semantic but can be auditory and visual.

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7
Q

Capacity, Function, Duration of SM

A

Iconic < 1000ms and Echoic < ½ sec
Limited: info competes for attention
Relay sensory info to attentional centre. Stores all five senses in specific registers
Memory retained for short periods of time (less than 5 seconds), step brain chooses to determine what is important (subconscious)

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8
Q

What is iconic memory?

A

Temporarily sores sensory info of a visual nature

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9
Q

What is echoic memory?

A

Temporarily stores sensory info of an auditory nature

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10
Q

SM - STM -LTM

A

Information is encoded from SM to STM only is attended to by sense organs. STM is transferred to LTM through rehearsal where it is ‘stored’ and can be retrieved

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11
Q

Encoding

A

changing information into a form in which the brain is able to store it (must attend to the info)

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12
Q

Storage

A

retaining information in the memory so it can be used later

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13
Q

Retrieval

A

the ability to locate and recover previously stored information

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14
Q

How is memory mentally represented?

A

memory is a psychological version of the original sound, thought, object or concept

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15
Q

Brown Peterson Technique

A
  • Used to test function of rehearsal
  • involving an interference/prevention of rehearsal thus decays retained info in STM and info successfully transferred to LTM
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16
Q

How can you transfer info from STM to LTM (Types of Rehearsal)

A

Maintenance rehearsal, Elaborative rehearsal and chunking

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17
Q

Maintenance Rehearsal

A

meaningless rote repetition of material to be remembered (least effective)

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18
Q

Elaborative Rehearsal

A

applying meaning to new words in order to retain them in memory (most effective)

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19
Q

Chunking

A

material is combined into larger/meaningful group

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20
Q

What is the Information Processing Model

A

Atkinson and Shriffren suggested that memory is made up of a series of stores - a limited capacity + central hard drive (analogy of computer).
Explains how processes such as sensation, perception, memory are controlled.

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21
Q

Baddley and Hitch’s Working Memory Model 1974

A
  • believes STM proposed by Multi Store Model is to simple
  • believes STM consists of two slave systems STM maintenance of info and one central executive responsible for organising information and coordinating the slave systems
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22
Q

What are Baddley and Hitch’s 4 parts of the STM

A

Central executive, Phonological loop, visual spatial sketchpad, Episodic buffer

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23
Q

Central executive

A
  • boss of STM
  • controls/coordinates the slave systems + relates them to LTM
  • controls attention
  • sends incoming info to relevant components and stores all sensory info
  • enables the STMS to selectively attend to some stimuli and ignore others when 2 activities comes into conflict ie car/phone
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24
Q

Visuospatial Sketchpad

A
  • slave system to CE
  • stores, displays and manipulates visual and spatial information held in LTM
  • Inner eye
  • ie spatial layout of house held in LTM and can be retrieved/displayed on sketchpad.
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25
Q

Phonological loop + 2 parts

A
  • slave system to CE
  • deals with spoken and written material (auditory nature)
  • Phonological Store – processes incoming information/ holds auditory info for 1/2 seconds. Spoken words enter direct but written must be converted to ACS first.
  • Articulatory control process -stores/plans speech production, inner voice rehearsing info (remembering telephone number)
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26
Q

Episodic Buffer

A
  • Links information across domains to form integrated units of visual, spatial and verbal
  • Links visual/auditory info with experiences in LTM
  • Links LTM to CE
  • integrates info from iconic and echoic memory
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27
Q

What are the predictions of the STM Model

A
  • if 2 tasks make use of the same component they cannot be performed together
  • if two make use of different components they can be performed together
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28
Q

Two areas of LTM

A
  • Procedural memory

- declarative memory

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29
Q

Procedural memory/ implicit

A

the way you do things unconsciously/ automatically; the “how to” of memory ie riding bike

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30
Q

Declarative memory/explicit + 2 types

A
  • requires conscious effort, the “what of memory”
  • Episodic: memory of your own set of autobiographical events/personal experiences
  • Semantic: factual knowledge possessed about the outside world an encyclopaedia of memory.
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31
Q

What are the 3 R’s

A

Recall, Recognition and Relearning

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32
Q

Recall + 2 types

A

being able to access the information without being cued

1) Free recall: is memory without prompting ie types of atoms.
2) Cued recall: is when aided by relevant information, ie neutron electron and ___?

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33
Q

Recognition

A

involves identifying information after experiencing it again, e.g multiple choice questions

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34
Q

Relearning

A

involves relearning information that has been previously learned. Makes it easier to remember / recall info in the future and can improve the strength of our memories.
If not relearnt will make recall less free and automatic

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35
Q

Forgetting definition

A

a failure to access information that had previously been stored in memory

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36
Q

Forgetting causes

A
  • caused by range of different deficiencies in encoding, storage and retrieval.
  • ie information stored in STM, was incorrectly heard (encoding problem), or not rehearsed enough and therefore is incomplete in LTM.
37
Q

Retrieval Failure Theory + Cue dependant forgetting

A

forgetting occurs because of a failure to use the right, correct, or appropriate cues at a certain time. —> increased by rehearsal and cues.

Cue dependant forgetting “need cues to remember” —> actually in memory it just can’t be accessed.

38
Q

Interference Theory

A
  • When two pieces of info are similar it leads to a situation called “interference” causing us to forget the difference
  • Old or new info produce confusion or competition and as a consequence blocks effective retrieval.
  • Proactive and Retroactive
39
Q

Proactive Interference

A

interference of old memories on the retrieval of new info

40
Q

Retroactive Interference

A

new info interferes with the ability to remember old information

41
Q

Motivated Forgetting

A
  • self protection defence; strong desire to forget certain things because the memory is either too traumatic, disturbing, anxiety-provoking or upsetting
  • Repression and Suppression
42
Q

What is Repression

A

keeping distressing (or unpleasant) thoughts buried in the unconscious (un)

43
Q

What is Suppression

A

deliberate effort to keep distressing thoughts out of conscious awareness (con)

44
Q

Decay Theory

A
  • Forgetting occurs because the memory trace (initially formed at learning) tends to gradually fade, or decay, over time
  • Loss of info in SM and STM via displacement
45
Q

Organic Theory

A
  • Forgetting (amnesia or memory loss) occurs due to some brain damage
  • damage to different areas leads to differing forms of memory loss
46
Q

What is Learning?

A

a relatively permanent change, often of behaviour, that occurs as a result of experience.

47
Q

Conditioning

A

the association made by the learner between a stimulus and a response

48
Q

Stimulus

A

any variable present in the environment that may trigger a response

49
Q

Response

A

an action or behaviour that is exhibited

50
Q

Classical Conditioning

A
  • stimulus-response theory
  • is an association forming between two stimuli, (not normally associated with the response) such that the appearance of that stimulus alone results in the response behaviour.
51
Q

Neutral Stimulus (NS

A

any stimulus that produces no relevant responses prior to the classical conditioning process (by association)

52
Q

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A

any stimulus that consistently leads to a reflexive response

53
Q

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A

a previously neutral response that has become associated with stimulus by which it was not previously caused by the classical conditioning process

54
Q

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

A

a unlearned, reflexive and involuntary response to a stimulus

55
Q

Conditioned Response (CR)

A

a reflexive and involuntary response that has become associated with a stimulus by which it was not previously caused during classical conditioning.

56
Q

Operant Conditioning

A
  • changing of behaviour by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response
57
Q

Difference between Classical and Operant Conditioning

A

Whilst classical focuses on changing voluntary behaviours through stimulus, operant conditioning is learning explained by consequences

58
Q

Reinforcement

A

a consequence that causes behaviour to occur more often. The goal of reinforcement is to strengthenthe behaviour and increase the likelihood that it will occur again in the future.

59
Q

Positive Reinforcement

A

behaviour increases when it is followed by a pleasant reward

60
Q

Negative Reinforcement

A

behaviour increases when it is followed by the removal of an unpleasant reward

61
Q

Punishment

A

is a consequence that causes behaviour to occur less frequently

62
Q

Positive punishment

A

behaviour decreases if an negative consequence is given after the behaviour

63
Q

Negative punishment

A

behaviour decreases if a pleasant stimulus is removed after the unwanted behaviour

64
Q

Observational Learning

A

The environment causes behaviour and learning, and behaviour can change the environment

65
Q

Factors involved in Observational Learning

A
  • attention (Observers cannot learn unless they pay attention)
  • retention(Observers must be able to remember what was happening around them)
  • reproduction (must be capable (physically and psychologically) of reproducing act)
  • Motivation (only perform if hey have motivation to do so which is enhanced by reinforcement)
66
Q

Schedules of Reinforcement

A

Is basically a rule stating which instances of a behaviour will be reinforced ie behaviour might be reinforced every time it occurs or not at all. Can dramatically change the rate and strength.

67
Q

Continuous Reinforcement Schedules

A
  • the desired behaviour is reinforcedevery single timeit occurs
  • best used during the initial stages of learning in order to create a strong association between the behaviour and the response
    ie teaching dog to shake, give treat every time
  • once response attached can change to partial reinforcement
68
Q

Partial Reinforcement Schedules

A
  • response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses
  • a high, steady rate of responding
  • E.g giving a reward to a rat after it presses a bar five times.
69
Q

Variable Ratio Schedule

A
  • occur when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses
  • produces high steady rate of responding
  • giving reward to a rat after one bar press, again after four bar presses, and a third reward after two bar presses. (gambling)
70
Q

Fixed Interval Schedule:

A
  • first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed
  • causes high amounts of responding near the end of the interval, but slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer
  • E.g giving a rat a reward for the first bar press after a 30-second interval has elapsed.
71
Q

Variable Interval Schedule

A
  • occurs when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed
  • produces a slow, steady rate of response
  • E.g giving reward to a rat after the first bar press following a one-minute interval, another for the first response following a five-minute interval, etc
72
Q

Bobo Doll Experiment

A

36 boys and 36 girls between 3 and 6 years old
The first experimental group 24 children exposed to aggressive behaviour, whilst the second experimental group of 24 was exposed to non-aggressive model behaviour
Then divided based on sex and shown opposite sex models

73
Q

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

A
  • theory emphasises Observational Learning
  • believed Learning was a function of observing, retaining and replicating behaviour observed in others
  • Modelling: when one observes the behaviour and consequences of another to influence their own thoughts, actions and feelings
74
Q

Bobo Doll Experiment Findings

A

Children exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to act in a physically aggressive manner
Boys had more aggression when exposed to aggressive male models than female models

75
Q

Glanzer and Cunitz Study Results

A
  • showed Serial position effect; tend to remember the first few and last few words than those in middle of a list
  • supports existence of seperate LTM/STM
  • words early on put in LTM (primacy) as time to rehearse and words later put in STM (recency)
76
Q

Evaluation of Glanzer and Cunitz

A
  • provides evidence support distinction of LTM/STM in terms of encoding/function/duration
  • account for primacy & recency effects.
  • oversimplified; suggests that LTM and STM operate in a single unitary store
  • Rehearsal far to simple explanation from info in STM to LTM ie we can still recall information we didn’t rehearse (swimming) but not what we have (study notes)
77
Q

KF Case Study

A
  • supports the STM Model
  • suffered brain damage from a motorcycle effected STM
  • verbal info effected, visual unaffected
  • shows seperate STM parts for visual (VSS) and auditory (PL)
78
Q

Baddley and Hitch Aim and Method

A

to investigate if participants can use different parts of WM at the same time

Had to perform two tasks at once. One was a digit span task asking them to repeat a list of numbers and a verbal reasoning task (true or false questions)


79
Q

Baddley and Hitch Results and Conclusion

A

As the amount of digits increased they took longer to recall them but only by fraction of sec. Didn’t make any more errors in the verbal reasoning tasks as # increased

Verbal tasks used CE, digit tasks used phonological loop. Dual task studies support STMM

80
Q

Baddley and Hitch Evaluation

A
  • explains a lot more than the multi-store model
  • empirically supported
  • applies to real life tasks; reading (PL) navigation (VSP)
  • little evidence for workings of CE
  • not a comprehensive model of memory as only involves STM not LTM
  • critics VSP as suggests all spatial info once visual (blind people have spatial awareness)
81
Q

Little Albert Stimulus and Responses

A 
Neutral Stimulus: Bunny
Unconditional Stimulus: Banging
Unconditional Response: Fear
Conditioned Stimulus: Bang
Conditioned Response: Fear of Bunny
82
Q

Pavlov’s Dog Stimulus and Responses Before, After and During Conditioning

A

Before Conditioning; Food (Unconditioned Stimulus) —> Salvation (Unconditioned Response)

During Conditioning: Food and Bell (Unconditioned Stimulus) —> Salvation (Unconditioned response)

After Conditioning: Bell (Conditioned Stimulus ) —> Salvation (Conditioned Response

83
Q

3 types of Learning

A

Conditioned, Operant and Observational

84
Q

Behaviour Modification

A

is the application of classical + operant conditioning techniques
Used to treat psychological problems such as fears/phobias

85
Q

Techniques for Modifying Behaviour

A

Token economies
Systematic desensitisation
CBT
Positive/Negative Reinforcement (rewards and punishments)

86
Q

Token Economies

A

Artificial systems of reward and reinforcement where symbolic markers ( ie fake money) are used to reward behaviour
Criticism; it is effective long term after token is removed

87
Q

Systematic Desensitisation:

A
  • application of classical conditioning to fears/phobias
    Fear response is replaced with a more relaxed response in a step by step process
  • Graded exposure: least threatening to the most threatening situation is presented
  • e.g seeing a picture of a snake, then seeing a real snake then holding it. Relaxation techniques are used at each step
88
Q

CBT

A
  • type of psychotherapy that helps people to change unhelpful or unhealthy thinking habit, feelings or behaviour
  • Used to treat problems such as anxiety, depression, low self esteem, anger, substance abuse etc

Psychology (9 decks)

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