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BIOLOGY PAPER 2 > CLONING & BIOTECHNOLOGY > Flashcards

CLONING & BIOTECHNOLOGY Flashcards

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1
Q

state 4 clones that plants produce naturally

A
  • tubers
  • runners
  • bulbs
  • rhizomes
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2
Q

define ‘clone’

A

genetically identical group of cells or organisms that arise from a single parent through asexual reproduction or artificial production

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3
Q

state 2 examples of how plant clones can be produced artificially

A
  • taking soft/hard wood cuttings
  • tissue culture
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4
Q

describe the process of taking a plant cutting

A
  • cut just below the node
  • remove large leaves near the bottom and buds from the top
  • dip the end in hormone powder to encourage root development
  • place cutting in a pot of moist soil or in a jar of water with a plastic bag over the leaves to reduce water loss
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5
Q

what is micropropagation?

A

rapid production of many young cloned plants from stock plant material using plant tissue culture methods

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6
Q

describe the process of tissue culture as a form of micropropagation

A
  • small amount of meristematic tissue eg shoot tips, is removed from parent and sterilised
  • tissue divided into tiny pieces and placed on growth medium containing nutrients & plant growth factors
  • when tissue samples develop roots and shoots, the platelets are transferred to a growing medium eg compost
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7
Q

advantages of micropropagation by tissue culture

A
  • large numbers of quality, identical plants produced quickly
  • many clones raised from GM material
  • seedless & sterile varieties can be grown for consumer taste
  • rare and endangered species can be propagated
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8
Q

disadvantages of micropropagation by tissue culture

A
  • monoculture - susceptible to same disease
  • expensive
  • requires skilled technician
  • plants may become infected during process
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9
Q

4 examples of natural clones in animals

A
  • flatworms divide by binary fission
  • hydra produce clones by budding
  • starfish grow new body from detached arm (fragmentation)
  • parthenogenesis where unfertilised eggs form embryos
  • embryo splitting to form identical twins
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10
Q

describe artificial embryo twinning

A
  • ovum is fertilised
  • after a few days the embryo is split into 2 which will be identical
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11
Q

describe somatic cell nuclear transfer

A
  • unfertilised ovum has nucleus removed (enucleation)
  • fused with somatic body cell using electric shock
  • embryo is placed in the uterus of a surrogate mother
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12
Q

advantages of animal cloning

A
  • GM embryos can be replicated
  • enables specific animals to be cloned
  • potential to produce rare / endangered animals or clone extinct species
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13
Q

disadvantages of animal cloning

A
  • inefficient, low survival rate
  • cloned embryos fail to develop, miscarry or are deformed
  • cloned animals have short life span
  • attempts to clone extinct species have even unsuccessful so far
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14
Q

what is biotechnology?

A

industrial use of living organisms to produce food, drugs or other product

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15
Q

why are microorganisms used in biotechnology?

A
  • grow rapidly at low temp
  • produce extracellular chemical that can be harvested from the growth medium
  • can be GM to synthesise useful products
  • grown on waste or toxic materials
  • can make products with less contamination than in chemical processes
  • not climate dependent
  • short lifespan
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16
Q

state 6 biotech processes which use microorganisms

A
  • brewing
  • baking
  • cheese making
  • yoghurt making
  • bioremediation
  • producing antibiotics
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17
Q

what is bioremediation?

A

using microorganisms to clear up pollution

18
Q

advantages of using microorganisms to make food

A
  • used to make dairy based foods
  • used to make Quorn/ vegetarian meat substitutes
  • make yeast or fungus fermented soy based foods
19
Q

disadvantages of using microorganisms to make food

A
  • personal taste
  • some people feel uncomfortable eating food made by microorganisms or food grown on waste
20
Q

describe culturing microorganisms

A
  • growth of microorganisms
  • in liquid broth or solid agar growth medium
  • growth medium contains nutrients ideally suited to microorganisms
21
Q

why must culturing of microorganisms be done in aseptic conditions?

A

reduce contamination from unwanted or pathogenic microorganisms

22
Q

describe the aseptic techniques used in culturing microorganisms

A
  • sterilise inoculating loop used to transfer microorganisms to agar by placing it in flame
  • dip sterilised loop in suspension of bacteria and make streaks across agar surface
  • replace lid on dish to avoid contamination
  • seal lid of Petri dish with tape to prevent microorganisms in air contaminating culture
  • don’t seal around edge so that oxygen can still enter and harmful anaerobic bacteria don’t grow
23
Q

describe the growing conditions in a fermentor

A
  • optimum temp, pH, nutrients, oxygen
  • maximise yield of required product
24
Q

what is a batch culture?

A
  • microorganisms are placed in the fermenter in a nutrient medium
  • no other nutrients are added
  • after a set time period the fermenter is drained and products are harvested
  • eg penicillin
25
Q

what is a continuous culture?

A
  • nutrients are added to the fermenter
  • products removed at regular intervals
  • eg human insulin synthesis by GM e coli
26
Q

purpose of steam entering the fermenter

A

sterilisation

27
Q

purpose of foam breaker in fermenter

A

reduces foaming of culture

28
Q

purpose of probes in fermenter

A

monitors pH, oxygen and temperature

29
Q

purpose of water cooled jacket in fermenter

A

remove excess heat

30
Q

purpose of sterile air in fermenter

A

provides oxygen for respiration

31
Q

formula to calculate number of individual organisms

A

N = N0 x 2>n

N number of organisms
N0 initial number
n number of divisions

32
Q

lag phase

A
  • slow growth at start of graph
  • microbes adapting to the conditions
  • excess nutrients and space
33
Q

exponential log phase

A
  • rapid growth
  • each generation doubles the population number
34
Q

stationery phase

A
  • death rate equals rate at which new individuals produced
  • waste and metabolic material builds up
35
Q

death decline phase

A
  • microorganisms die as nutrients are exhausted
  • levels of waste and metabolic product increase
  • microorganisms will die
36
Q

why are enzymes in biotechnology immobilised?

A
  • so they can be used repeatedly
  • but remain easy to separate from substrate and products
37
Q

describe adsorption as a method of immobilising enzymes

A
  • bound to clay, resins or glass beads by non covalent forces
  • high rate of reaction if active site not obscured
  • risk of leakage as weakly bound support
38
Q

describe covalent bonding as a method of immobilising enzymes

A
  • covalently linked to an insoluble substance
  • very little leakage as strong bonds
  • only a small amount can be immobilised
39
Q

describe entrapment

A
  • trapped in gel or network of fibres
  • enzymes only trapped so active sites accessible
  • substrate must diffuse through support so reaction rates can be slow
40
Q

describe membrane separation

A
  • physically separated from substrate by a partially permeable membrane
  • active sites freely accessible
  • rate depends on diffusion of substrate and products through membrane

BIOLOGY PAPER 2 (8 decks)

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