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Cloning & Biotechnology Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is cloning?

A

Cloning is the process of producing genetically identical cells or organisms from the cells of an existing organism.

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2
Q

What is vegetative propagation?

A

Production of plant clones from non- reproductive tissues, e.g. roots, leaves and stems.

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3
Q

What do all modes of vegetative propagation contain?

A

Modified stems that can generate meristems

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4
Q

Examples of natural vegetative propagation methods: What are rhizomes?

A

Rhizomes are stem structures that grow horizontally underground away from the parent plant. They have ‘nodes’ from which new shoots and roots can develop.

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5
Q

Examples of natural vegetative propagation methods: What is an example of a plant that uses rhizomes?

A

Bamboo

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6
Q

Examples of natural vegetative propagation methods: What are runners (also called Stolons)?

A

Runners are similar to rhizomes, the main difference is they grow above ground, on the surface of the soil. New shoots and roots can either develop from nodes or at the end of the runner.

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7
Q

Examples of natural vegetative propagation methods: What is an example of a plant that uses runners?

A

Strawberries

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8
Q

Examples of natural vegetative propagation methods: What are suckers?

A

Suckers are shoots that grow from sucker beds (undeveloped shoots) present on the shallow roots of a parent plant

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9
Q

Examples of natural vegetative propagation methods: What is an example of a plant that uses suckers?

A

Elm trees

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10
Q

Examples of natural vegetative propagation methods: What are tubers?

A

Tubers are large underground plant structures that act as a food store for the plant. They’re covered in ‘eyes’. Each eye is able to sprout and form a new plant.

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11
Q

Examples of natural vegetative propagation methods: What is an example of a plant that uses tubers?

A

Potatoes

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12
Q

Examples of natural vegetative propagation methods: What are bulbs?

A

Bulbs are underground food stores used by some plants. New bulbs are able to develop from the orginal bulb and form new individual plants.

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13
Q

Examples of natural vegetative propagation methods: What is an example of a plant that uses bulbs?

A

Onions

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14
Q

How can a cutting be taken and grown from a stem?

A
  1. Use sharp scissors to take a cutting, between 5cm and 10cm long, from the end of the parent plant.
  2. Remove leaves from the lower end of the cutting, leaving just 1 at the tip.
  3. Dip the lower end of the cutting in rooting powder, which contains hormones that induce root formation.
  4. Plant cutting in a pot containing a suitable growth medium (e.g. well drained compost).
  5. Provide cutting a warm moist enviornment by either covering it with a plastic bag or putting it in a propagator.
  6. When cutting is strong enough and has its own roots, it can be planted elsewhere to continue growing.
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15
Q

What is split vein cutting?

A

Popular type of leaf cutting, which involve removing the complete leaf and scoring the large veins on the lower leaf with a scalpel. Then put it on top growth medium with the broken veins facing down and follow steps 5 and 6. A new plant should form from each break in the veins.

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16
Q

What is the name for how plants can be artificially cloned?

A

Tissue culture

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17
Q

How is tissue culture done?

A
  1. Cells are taken from orginal plant
  2. Cells from stem and root tips are usally used because they’re stem cells
  3. The cells are sterilised to kill any microorganisms
  4. The cells are then placed on a cultural medium containing plant nutrients (like glucose for respiration) and growth hormones (such as auxins).
  5. When the cells have divided and grown into a small plant they’re taken out of the medium and planted in soil- they’ll develop into plants that are genetically identical to the orginal plant.
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18
Q

What is tissue culture used for?

A

To clone plants that don’t readily reproduce or that are endangered or rare e.g. British orchids. It is used to grow whole organisms from genetically engineered plant cells.

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19
Q

What is micropropagation?

A

When tissue culture is used to produce lots of cloned plants very quickly. Cells are taken from developing cloned plants are subcultured (grown on a fresh culture medium)- repeating this process creates large numbers of clones.

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20
Q

What is micropropagation used for?

A

Used extensively in horticulture and agriculture, e.g. to produce fields of a crop that has been genetically engineered to be pres-resistant.

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21
Q

Arguments for artificial plant cloning in agriculture and horticulture?

A
  • Desirable genetic characteristics (e.g. high fruit production) are always passed on to clones. This doesn’t always happen when plants reproduce sexually.
  • Tissue culture allows plants to be reproduced in any season because the enviornment is controlled.
  • Less space is required by tissue culture than would be needed to produce the same number of plants by conventional growing methods.
  • It produces lots of plants less quickly comapred to the time it would take to grow them from seeds.
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22
Q

Arguments against artificial plant cloning in agriculture and horticulture?

A
  • Undesirable genetic characteristics (e.g. producing fruit with lots of seeds) are always passed on to clones.
  • Cloned plant populations have no genetic variability, so a single disease could kill them all.
  • Production costs of tissue culture are very high due to high energy use and the training of skilled workers, so its unsuitable for small scale production.
  • Contamination by microorganisms during tissue culture can be disastrous and result in complete loss of the plants being cultured.
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23
Q

What are the two methods of artifical animal cloning?

A

Artifical embryo twinning and somatic nuclear transfer

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24
Q

How can animal clone occur naturally?

A

During sexual reproduction, once an egg is fertilised, it’s possible for it to split during the very early stages of development and develop into multiple embryos with the same genetic information. The embryos develop as normal to produce offspring that are genetically identical- they are clones. For example, identical twins are natural clones.

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25
Q

What is the process of artifical embryo twinning (for example in cows)?

A
  1. An egg is extracted from a female cow and fertilised in a Petri dish.
  2. The fertilised egg is left to divide at least once, forming an embryo vitro (outside a living organism).
  3. The individual cells from the embryo are seperated (embryo splitting) and each put into a seperate Petri dish. Each cell divides and develops normally, so an embryo forms in each Petri dish.
  4. The embryos are then implanted into female cows, which act as surrogate mothers.
  5. Embryos continue to develop inside the surrogate cow, and eventually the offspring are born. They’re all genetically identical to each other.
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26
Q

What is the process of somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) (for example in sheep)?

A
  1. A somatic cell (any cell that isn’t a reproductive cell) is taken from sheep A. The nucleus is extracted and kept.
  2. An oocyte (immature egg cell) is taken from sheep B. Its nucleus is removed to form an enucleated oocyte.
  3. The nucleus from sheep A is inserted into the enucleated oocyte- the oocyte from sheep B now contains the genetic infomration from sheep A.
  4. The nucleus and enucleated nucleus are fused together and stimulated to divide (e.g. by electrofusion, where an electron current is applied). This produces an embryo.
  5. Embryo is implanted into a surrogate mother an eventually a lamb is born that’s a clone of sheep A.
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27
Q

Arguments for the use of animal cloning?

A
  • Desirable genetic charcateristics are always passed on to clones (e.g. high milk production in cows). This doesn’t always happen through sexual reproduction.
  • Infertile animals can be reproduced
  • Increasing the populations of endangered species helps persevere biodiversity.
  • Animals can be cloned at any time- you wouldn’t ahve to wait for breeding season to get new animals.
  • Cloning can help us devlop new treatments for disease, which could mean less suffering for some people.
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28
Q

Arguments against animal cloning?

A
  • Animal cloning is very difficult, time consuming and expensive.
  • No genetic variability in cloned populations, so undesirable genetic charcateristics (e.g. a weak immune system) are always passed on to clones. This means that all of the clones animals in a population are susceptible to the same diseases.
  • Some evidence suggests that clones may not live as long as natural offspring. Some think that is unethical.
  • Using cloned embryos as a source of stem cells is controversial. The embryos are usally destroyed after the embryonic stem cells have been harvested- some people believe this is destroying a life.
29
Q

Uses of animal cloning: Medicines?

A

Scientists use cloned animals for genetic purposes, e.g. in the field of medicine they can test new drugs on cloned animals. They’re all genetically identical, so the varibales that come from genetic differences (e.g. the likelihood of developing cancer) are removed.

30
Q

Uses of animal cloning: Endangered animals?

A

Can be used to save endangered animals from extinction by cloning new individuals.

31
Q

Uses of animal cloning: Useful substances?

A

Animals that have been genetically modified to produce useful substances that they wouldn’t normally produce (e.g. a benefical protein in their milk) could be cloned to produce lots of identical animals that all produce the same substance.

32
Q

Uses of animal cloning: Not making whole organisms?

A

Some scientists only want the cloned embryonic stem cells. These cells are harvested from young embryos and have the potential to become any cell type. so scientists think they could be used to replace damaged tissues in a range of diseases., e.g. heart disease, spinal cord injuries, degenerative brain disorders like Parkinson’s disease. If replacement tissue is made from cloned embryonic cells that are genetically identical to the patient’s own cells, it won’t be rejected by their immune system.

33
Q

What is biotechnology?

A

The industrial use of living organisms to produce food, drugs and other products.

34
Q

Why are microorganisms mainly used in biotechnology?

A
  • Their growth conditions can be easily created- microorganisms will generally successfully as long as they have the right nutrients, temperature, pH, moisture levels and availability of gases.
  • Because I’d their short life-cycle, they grow rapidly under the right conditions, so products can be made quickly.
  • They can be grown on a range of inexpensive materials- this makes them economical to use
  • They can be grown at any time of the year.
35
Q

What is the role of microorganisms in brewing (beer making)?

A

To make beer, yeast is added to a type of grain (such as barley) and other ingredients. They east respires anaerobically using the glucose from the grain and produced ethanol (alcohol) and CO2. (When anaerobic respiration produces ethanol, this process is called fermentation).

36
Q

What is the role of microorganisms in baking?

A

Yeast is also the organism that makes bread rise. The CO2 produced by fermentation of sugars in the dough makes sure it doesn’t stay flat. Many flatbreads, tortillas, are made without yeast.

37
Q

What is the role of microorganisms in cheese making?

A

Pasteurised milk is used as raw material. Bacteria are used to digest lactose, producing lactic acid. Lactic acid lowers the pH of the milk. The low pH causes proteins in the milk to denature, leading to the seperation of curds (solids) and whey (liquids). Curds are pressed and processed into hard cheeses e.g. Red Lecister.

38
Q

What is the role of microorganisms in yogurt production?

A

Yogurt production involves the use of lactic acid bacteria to clot the milk and cause it to thicken. This creates basic yogurt product and then any flavours and colours are added.

39
Q

What is the role of microorganisms in penicillin production?

A

In times of stress Penicillium genus produces an antibiotic, penicillin, to stop bacteria from growing and competing for resources. Th fungus (usually Penicillium chrysogenum) is grown under stress in industrial fermenters and the penicillin produced in collected and processed to be used in medicine.

40
Q

What is the role of microorganisms in insulin production?

A

Insulin is made by genetically modified bacteria, which have had the gene for human insulin production inserted into their DNA. These bacteria are grown in an industrial fermenter on a massive scale and insulin is collected and purified.

41
Q

What is the role of microorganisms in bioremediation?

A

Most commonly, pollutant-removing bacteria that occur naturally at a site are provided with extra nutrients and enhanced growing conditions to allow them to multiply and thrive. These bacteria break down teh pollutants into less harmful products, cleaning up the area. For example bioremediation using bacteria has been used to clean up oil spills at sea.

42
Q

What does bioremediation mean?

A

The process of using organisms to remove pollutants , like oil pesticides, from contaminated sites.

43
Q

What is single-cell protein?

A

Microorganisms that are grown as a source of protein, which can act a valuable food source.

44
Q

Advantages of using microorganisms in food production?

A
  • Can be grown very quickly, easily and cheaply. Production costs are low because microorganisms have simple growth requirements, can be grown on waste products and less land is required in comparsion to growing crops and rearing livestock.
  • Can be cultured anywhere. This means that a food source could be readily produced in places where growing crops are rearing livestock is difficult (e.g. very hot or cold climates). This could help tackle malnutrition.
  • Single-cell protein is considered a healthier alternative to animal protein.
45
Q

Disadvantages of using microorganisms in food production?

A
  • Single-cell protein doesn’t have the same texture or flavour as meat.
  • People may not like the idea of eating food that has been grown using waste products.
  • Large quantities of single-cell protein consumption can lead to health problems, due to the high levels of uric acid released when large amounts of amino acids are broken down.
46
Q

What is batch fermentation?

A

Where microorganisms are grown in individual batches in a fermentation vessel- when one culture ends it’s removed and then a differnet batch is grown in the vessel. This is known as a closed culture.

47
Q

What is continous fermentation?

A

This is where microorganisms are continually grown in a fermentation vessel without stopping. Nutrients are put in and waste products are taken out at a constant rate.

48
Q

Conditions in the fermenter vessel: How is pH regulated?

A

Constantly monitored by a pH probe and kept at optimum level.

49
Q

Conditions in the fermenter vessel: How does pH maximise yield?

A

Allows enzymes to work efficently, so the rate of reaction is kept as high as possible.

50
Q

Conditions in the fermenter vessel: How is temperature regulated?

A

Kept constant by a water jacket that surrounds the whole vessel.

51
Q

Conditions in the fermenter vessel: How does temperature maximise yield?

A

Allows enzymes to work efficently, so the rate of reaction is kept as high as possible.

52
Q

Conditions in the fermenter vessel: How is access to nutrients regulated?

A

Paddles constantly circulate fresh nutrient medium around the vessel.

53
Q

Conditions in the fermenter vessel: How does access to nutrients maximise yield?

A

Ensures that microorganisms always have access to their required nutrients.

54
Q

Conditions in the fermenter vessel: How is volume of oxygen regulated?

A

Sterile air is pumped into the vessel when needed

55
Q

Conditions in the fermenter vessel: How does volume of oxygen maximise yield?

A

Makes sure that microorganisms always have oxygen for respiration

56
Q

Conditions in the fermenter vessel: How is vessel kept sterile regulated?

A

Superheated steam sterilises the vessel after each use.

57
Q

Conditions in the fermenter vessel: How does the vessel being sterile maximise yield?

A

Kills any unwanted organisms that may compete with the ones being cultured.

58
Q

What are the 4 stages a population of microorganisms follow in a closed culture?

A

Lag phase, log phase, stationary phase and decline phase.

59
Q

What happens in the lag phase?

A

The population size increases slowly because the microorganisms have to make enzymes and other molecules before they can reproduce. This means reproduction rate is low.

60
Q

What happens in log phase?

A

The population size increases quickly because the culture conditions are at their most favourable for reproduction (lots of food and little competition). The number of microorganisms doubles with each division.

61
Q

What happens in the stationary phase?

A

The population size stays level because the death rate of microorganisms equals their reporductive rate (by binary fission). Microorganisms die because there’s not enough food and poisonous waste builds up.

62
Q

What happens in the decline phase?

A

The population size falls because the death rate is greater than the reproduction rate. This is because food is very scarce and waste products are at toxic levels.

63
Q

What is the equation to calculate the rate of cell division by binary fission?

A

N = N0 x 2^n
N= the final number of bacteria
N0= the inital number of bacteria
n= the number of divisions

64
Q

What are immobilised enzymes?

A

Enzymes that are attached to an insoluble material so they can’t become mixed with the products.

65
Q

What are the 3 main ways enzymes are immobilised?

A
  1. Encapsulated in jelly-like alginate bead, which act as a semi-permable membrane.
  2. Trapped in a silica gel matrix
  3. Covalently bonded to cellulose or collagen fibres
66
Q

What are the advantages of using immobilised enzymes in industry?

A
  • Columns of immobilised enzymes can be washed and reused- this reduces the cost of running a reaction on an industrial scale because you don’t have to keep buying new enzymes.
  • Column isn’t mixed with enzymes- no money or time spent seperating them out.
  • More stable than free enzymes- they’re less likely to denature in high temps or extremes of pH.
67
Q

What are the disadvantages of using immobilised enzymes in industry?

A
  • Extra equipment is required, which can be expensive to buy.
  • Immobilised enzymes are more expensive to buy than free enzymes, so coupled with equipment costs, they’re not always economical for use in smaller scale productions.
  • Can sometimes lead to a reduction in enzyme activity because they can’t freely mix with their substrate.
68
Q

Immobilised enzymes for industrial processes: Conversion of glucose to fructose?

A

Fructose is a sugar that is much sweeter than glucose. It’s used as a sweetener in food-using fructose rather than glucose means that less sugar is needed to obtain the same level of sweetness in our foods. Immobilised glucose isomerase is used to convert glucose to fructose on an industrial scale.

69
Q

Immobilised enzymes for industrial processes: Production of semi-synthetic penicillins?

A

Penicillin is a useful antibiotic, but some bacteria are penicillin resistant. Semi-synthetic penicillins can now be produced, which have the same antibiotic properties as natural penicillin, but are effective against penicillin-resistant organisms. Immobilised penicillin acylase enzyme is used in their production.

Biology (20 decks)

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