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Biology year 2 > Cloning and biotechnology > Flashcards

Cloning and biotechnology Flashcards

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1
Q

What are clones and how produced

A

genetically identical organisms or cells
formed from mitosis

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2
Q

Advantages of natural cloning in plants

A

-conditions good for parent, then good for offspring
-quick
-only need one parent

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3
Q

Disadvantages of natural cloning in plants

A

-offspring may become overcrowded
-no genetic diversity
-little variation so if the environment changes, the whole population is susceptible

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4
Q

Examples of natural clones in plants

A

-runners/stolons- horizontal stems that form roots on the surface
-rhizomes- same as runners but grow underground
-suckers- new stems that grow from the root of the plant
-bulbs- contain multiple apical buds which grow into new plants
-corms-underground stem with scaly leaves and bulbs
-leaves
-tubers

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5
Q

Using natural clones (cuttings)

A

-farmers and gardeners take advantage of vegetative propagation
-where cut the stem at the nodes and place in new soil to grow
-also take cuttings from root, scion and leaf

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6
Q

Tissue culture

A

-growing new tissues, organs or plants from certain tissues cut from a sample plant
-used in micropropagation

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7
Q

Micropropagation steps

A

-plant tissue is cut into small pieces= explant
-explant sterilised in bleach or alcohol
-placed on growth medium eg agar with auxin and cytokinins
-this stimulates the explant to divide forming a callus
-callus is divided into smaller clumps and stimulated to grow by moving them through different mediums of auxin and cytokinins
-when tiny plantlets form they are transferred to a greenhouse

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8
Q

Advantages of artificial cloning in plants

A

-quick
-only needs one parent
-genetically identical so will show same desired characteristics
-uniform phenotype so easy to grow and harvest

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9
Q

Disadvantages of artificial cloning in plants

A

-labour intensive
-expensive to set up and perform tissue culture successfully
-all genetically identical and susceptible to same diseases
-no genetic variation

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10
Q

Examples of natural clones in animals

A

-identical twins
-water flea and greenfly divide asexually

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11
Q

What cells used in artificial cloning in animals

A

totipotent cells that can differentiate into any cell

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12
Q

Examples of reproductive cloning in animals

A

Embryo splitting
Somatic cell nuclear transfer

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13
Q

Embryo splitting

A

-zygote is created by in vitro fertilisation (IVF)
-zygote allowed to divide by mitosis to form a small ball of cells
-cells are separated and allowed to continue dividing
-each small mass of cells is placed into the uterus of a surrogate mother

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14
Q

Somatic cell nuclear transfer

A

-egg obtained and nucleus removed= enucleation
-normal body cell from the adult to be cloned is isolated
-complete adult somatic cell is fused with empty egg cell by electric shock
-shock triggers egg to develop as if it’s fertilised
-cell divides by mitosis producing ball of cells
-embryo places into the uterus of a surrogate

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15
Q

Non reproductive cloning

A

Therapeutic cloning
-skin grown in vitro to graft over burnt areas
-repair damage to spinal cord of mice that are used to help pancreas produce insulin
Cloning for scientific research
-research action of genes that control development and differentiation
-grow tissues to test effects of drugs

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16
Q

Advantages artificial cloning in animals

A

-produce high yield of animals with desired characteristics eg. cows that produce lots milk
-genetically identical copies with same characteristics
-endangered species can be cloned to increase numbers

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17
Q

Disadvantages of artificial cloning in animals

A

-lack genetic variation, susceptible to disease
-poor success rate of cloning and expensive
-ethical issues as use of embryo
-coming endangered species won’t increase genetic diversity

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18
Q

Biotechnology

A

-the use of living organisms or parts of living organisms in industrial processes
-nowadays it has come to mean the use of organisms in production processes eg. gene technology, immunology, selective breeding

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19
Q

4 ways that biotechnology is used

A

-food eg. alcohol, bread rising, cheese production
-pharmaceutical drugs eg. penicillin, insulin
-Enzymes eg. protease and lipase used in washing powders, lactase to make lactose free milk
-other products eg. biogas= combo CO2 and methane, citric acid

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20
Q

Advantages of using microorganisms in biotechnology

A

-cheap and easy to grow
-production take place at lower temperatures, saving energy
-not dependent on climate
-reproduce quickly
-fewer ethical considerations

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21
Q

Yoghurt production

A

-milk that has been fermented by bacteria
-bacteria convert lactose to lactic acid
-causes milk to coagulate= clump

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22
Q

Cheese production

A

-milk treated bacteria to produce lactic acid from lactose
-mixed rennet that contains enzyme rennin
-coagulates the milk protein (casein) in presence Ca2+
-kappa casein broken down making casein insoluble
-casein ppt by Ca2+ which bind together
-forms curd which is pressed into moulds

23
Q

Bread production

A

-mix ingredients to produce dough
-proving/ fermenting- left in warm place while yeast respires anaerobically producing CO2
-dough baked and alcohol evaporates

24
Q

Alcohol production

A

-product anaerobic respiration of yeast
-use grapes with yeast on skin that when crushed, sugars produce CO2 and alcohol

25
Q

Single cell protein production eg quorn

A

-use fungus which produces mycoproteins eg quorn

26
Q

Advantages of using microorganisms in food

A

-faster than animal or plant protein production
-high protein content in biomass
-production altered according to demand
-no animal welfare issues

27
Q

Disadvantages of using microorganisms in food

A

-people may not want to eat fungal protein
-protein has to be purified to make sure it’s not contaminated
-can have large proportion of nucleic acids that need to be removed

28
Q

Commercial drug productions

A

-uses a fermenter which controls conditions for max yield of product
-temperature to prevent enzymes denaturing by having a water jacket and temperature probe
-nutrients available by having an inlet
-oxygen availability for respiration by having an air inlet
-pH- prevent enzyme denature and measured using probe
-concentration of product

29
Q

Batch and continuous culture

A

Batch
-cells are put under stress by low nutrients or high population density
-this produces secondary metabolites from the stationary phase of growth
-set up with limited nutrient and allowed to ferment for a certain time before all product is collected
Continuous
-products synthesised during normal metabolism= primary metabolites
-products continuously released from cells and extracted from the fermenting broth
-nutrients are then continuously topped up

30
Q

Production of penicillin

A

-secondary metabolite therefore produced by batch culture

  1. fermenter run for 6-8 days. Culture filtered to remove cells
  2. antibiotic precipitated as crystals by addition of potassium compounds
  3. antibiotic mixed with inert substances and prepared for administration
31
Q

Growth curve graph

A

-shows growth of microorganisms in a closed culture= batch
Lag phase- slow growth in population as acclimatising to new environment
Log phase/exponential- acclimatised and have sufficient nutrients so pop grows rapidly
Stationary phase- using up nutrients and build up of waste causing birth rate to equal death rate
Death/ decline phase- nutrients run out and the concentration of waste products is high. This kills organisms, causing pop to decrease

32
Q

Bioremediation

A

-use of microorganisms to clean soil and water on polluted sites
-organisms convert toxic pollutants to less harmful substances
-bacteria can be used to breakdown crude oil to treat oil spills
-involves stimulating the growth of suitable microbes that use contaminants as a source of food

33
Q

Advantages of bioremediation

A

-uses natural systems
-less labour and equipment required
-treatment in situ
-few waste products
-less risk of exposure to clean up personnel

34
Q

2 growth mediums and what they contain

A

-agar jelly
-broth
contain peptones, yeast extract, salts, water
carbon compounds for respiration
nitrogen compounds for growth

35
Q

Typical aseptic procedure

A

-wash hands
-disinfect working area
-bunsen burner to sterilise air nearby
-as you open a vessel pass the neck of the bottle through the flame
-don’t fully open petri dish lid, just enough to introduce microorganism
-metal/ glassware should be flamed

36
Q

3 steps to grow microorganisms on agar plates

A

sterilisation
inoculation
incubation

37
Q

Sterilisation

A

-heated in autoclave at 121°
-this kills any microorganisms that could contaminate

38
Q

Inoculation

A

-streaking- wire inoculating loop spread across the agar and the plate rotated
-seeding- sterile pipette to drop liquid onto agar
-spreading- use a sterile glass spreader to wipe over agar
-cotton bud wiped on surface to collect microorganisms then wiped on agar

39
Q

Incubation

A

-tape dish with 2 bits of tape so oxygen can get in
-put upside down so condensation doesn’t drop onto jelly to contaminate
-place in warm environment

40
Q

Why we use a liquid growth medium

A

-use a broth to increase the number of microorganisms before transferring to the agar

41
Q

Why we do serial dilutions

A

-to reduce population density making the microorganisms easier to count

42
Q

How serial dilutions are performed

A

-1cm3 of solution diluted with 9cm3 of water. Forms a solution diluted by 1 in 10 = x no. by 10
-then add 1cm3 of that solution to another test tube with 9cm3 of water. Forms a solution diluted by 1 in 100 = x no. by 1000

43
Q

How to calculate CFU/Cm3

A

-CFU- colony forming unit
-first divide by the number of cultures counted by the volume used
-the times by the amount they’re diluted by
eg. 20 colonies in 0.1 diluted by 0.01
20/0.1=200
200x100= 20,000

44
Q

What is culturing microorganisms

A

-when microorganisms are grown on agar plate/ nutrient broth
-do this using aseptic techniques

45
Q

Immobilised enzymes

A

an enzyme that is held in place and not free to diffuse through the solution

46
Q

Advantages of immobilised enzymes

A

-don’t mix with product so extraction costs are less
-enzymes easily removed
-continuous process easier as no cells requiring nutrients, reproducing and producing waste
-enzymes surrounded by immobilising matrix which protects enzymes from extreme conditions which could cause them to denature

47
Q

4 methods immobilised enzymes

A

Adsorption:
-enzymes bound to supporting surface by hydrophobic reactions and ionic links
-suitable surfaces= clay, porous carbon, glass beads, resins
Covalent bonding
-bonding to surface eg clay by covalent bonds. More expensive but less likely to leak into reaction mixture
Entrapment
-enzyme trapped in matrix eg. alginate beads. The substrate then move past beads
Membrane separation
-enzymes separated from substrate by membrane
-substrate passes through membrane then products leave membrane

48
Q

Industrial enzyme examples

A

Glucose isomerase
Penicillin acylase
Lactase
Aminoacylase
Glucoamylase
Nitrile hydratase

49
Q

Glucose isomerase

A

-convert glucose to fructose
-fructose sweeter than glucose so used for diabetics as only need small amount

50
Q

Penicillin acylase

A

-forms semi synthetic penicillin
-microorganisms aren’t resistant to it

51
Q

Lactase

A

-convert lactose to glucose and galactose
-good for people lactose intolerant

52
Q

Aminoacylase

A

-produces pure sample L-amino acids by removing acyl group from N-acyl-amino acid
-L amino acids used in synthesis pharmaceutical compounds

53
Q

Glucoamylase

A

-Convert dextrins to glucose
-as sometimes in break down of starch dextrins are produced

54
Q

Nitrile hydratase

A

-covert nitrile to amides
-polymerised to form polyacrylamide which is used in water treatment

Biology year 2 (14 decks)

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