CLEP Flashcards
Edward Titchener (Structuralism)
STRUCTURALISM
Examined structure of the mind
Analyzed structure and content of mental states by INTROSPECTION
Concerned with reducing experience to basic parts
William James (Functionalism
FUNCTIONALISM
Researched how mind adapts to environment
Influenced by Charles Darwin - evolution, natural selection
Thought conscious experience was always adapting and changing
Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, B. F. Skinner (Behaviorism)
BEHAVIORISM
Stressed study of observable behavior, not unobservable consciousness
Sigmund Freud
PSYCHOANALYSIS
emphasized study of unconscious mental processes
People driven be sexual urges
Most emotional conflicts date back to early childhood experiences
Max Wertheimer
GESTALT
Emphasized perception; stimuli perceived as whole entities rather than parts put together
Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow
HUMANISTIC
Stressed that humans have enormous potential for personal growth
Emphasized importance of free will, uniqueness of individual, and human ability to make choices
Jean Piaget
COGNITIVE
Studied internal, mental representations used in perceiving, remembering, thinking, and understanding
Behaviorist Perspective
That personality is a collection of learned behavior patterns. Acquired through conditioning, social learning, discrimination, and generalization
Sensorimotor Stage
Piaget (1st Stage)
–Describes individuals from birth to around the age of two
Preoperational Stage
Piaget (2nd Stage)
- -Describes cognitive behavior between ages of two and seven
- -Characteristics: egocentrism, rigidity of thought, semi logical reasoning, limited reasoning, limited social cognition
Concrete Operations
Piaget (3rd Stage)
- -Describes individuals from ages seven to eleven
- -Begin to decenter, take in viewpoints other than their own, inductive reasoning, beginning of operational thinkinf, perform transformations, can increase quantitative skills
Formal Operations
Piaget (4th and Final Stage)
- -Describes individuals from ages eleven to fifteen
- -Higher, critical thinking
- -Logical, abstract, and hypothetical thought, can use the scientific method, plan and anticipate verbal cues. Deductive and inductive reasoning and think in abstract thought.
Erik Erikson
(1st Stage: Initiative vs Guilt)
- -Preschool and primary-school-aged children
- -Initiative when children function in the world independently of parents. When they do this, they feel “initiative” but since they are not able to move away from total attachment and control, they feel “guilt.”
Industry vs Inferiority
(2nd Stage: Erikson)
- -Children entering school
- -If performs well academically and makes good social connections, feels a sense of “industry”
- -If performs poorly, leads to a sense of “inferiority”
Sigmund Freud
Medical doctor from Vienna; specialist in neurology
- -From theories of personality, developed Psychodynamic theories/psychoanalytic theories
- -Believes each adult personality consisted of an id, ego, and superego
Sigmund Freud’s psychodynamic/psychoanalytic theories
1) Childhood experiences determine adult personality
2) Unconscious mental processes influence everyday behavior
3) Conflict causes most human ego
Id
- -Develops at birth
- -Pleasure principle, unconscious instincts, irrational, seeks instant gratification, sexual desires
Ego
- -Develops around 6 months
- -Executive branch - makes decisions
- Reality principle, mediates id and reality
Superego
- -Develops around 6 years
- -Deals with morals; determines if something is right or wrong
Modeling
A technique used in behavior therapy
What is the most widely accepted significance level for demonstrating significance in experimental results?
.05
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that elicits a response before the experimental manipulation
Unconscious (according to Freud)
- -Most of our personality is unconscious
- -Though thoughts, memories, and desires were unconscious, they still affected behavior
Conscious (according to Freud)
–Consists of whatever we are aware of in a particular point in time
Preconscious (according to Freud)
–Contains material just below surface of awareness but can easily be retrieved
Defense Mechanisms
–Unconscious methods used by the ego to distort reality and protect us from anxiety
Experiment
–Strengths
Can make cause and effect relationships. Researcher has control
–Weaknesses
Sampling errors. Often hard to generalize to real world.
Correlation/correlational research
Measures two or more variables to determine if they are related
–Strengths
Can study real-world behavior. Can determine relationships.
–Weaknesses
Cannot determine cause and effect
Naturalistic Observation
–Occurs in a natural setting not manipulated by researcher
–Strengths
Can gather info in its usual setting as it naturally occurs
–Weaknesses
Cannot determine cause and effect. Observer bias possible.
Case Study
–An in depth study of a single subject. Can include interviews, etc.
– Strengths
Intensive info can be gathered about individuals
–Weaknesses
Cannot determine cause and effect. Expensive and time consuming. May not be able to generalize info gathered to others. Biased sample possible.
Survey
–Researcher asks group of people about behaviors, thoughts, or opinions. Data is collected.
–Strengths
Large amounts of information can be gathered from many people in a relatively short period of time
–Weaknesses
Cannot determine cause and effect. Biased sample possible. Response bias possible. Survey questions might not be reliable or valid.
Must a person know and consent if they’re going to be experimented on and be studied?
Yes. The American Psychological Association (APA) had published ethical guidelines regarding participants.
Nervous System
–Divided into two parts: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system
- -Functions
1) processes incoming info
2) integrates incoming info
3) influences and directs reactions to incoming info
Central Nervous System
Contains the brain and the spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System
Divided into somatoc, autonomic, sympathetic, and parasympathetic.
-Job: to carry messages to and from the central nervous system
Gray matter
Refers to the neurons in the brain without myelin
Psychological Dependence
Usually referring to addiction, though not necessarily
Ovum/Germinal
The first two weeks after conception
Embryo
Second to eighth week after conception
Fetus
From two months after conception until birth
Psychophysics/psychophysical methods
An area of psychology that examines the relationship between sensory stimuli and individual psychological reactions to these stimuli
Cornea
The transparent outer bulge in front of the eye
Pupil
The dark circle in the center of the iris of the eye. The iris is the colored muscle that surrounds the pupil and controls the amount of light that enters the eye.
Lens
Focuses light onto retina. Accommodation occurs when curvature of lense adjusts to alter visual focus (flattens for distant objects and fattens for close objects)
Ganglion cells
The axons of the ganglion cells form the optic nerve. Optic nerve carries visual message to occipital lobe of brain for interpretation
Concept
A label that represents a class or group of objects, people, or events that share common characteristics or qualities
Mental Imagery
Refers to mental representations of things that are not physically present
Cognitive Maps
Contain our mental images of what is where
Reasoning
Involves transforming info to reach a conclusion. It includes evaluating and generating arguments to reach a conclusion.
Syllogisms
Arguments made up of two propositions, called premises and a conclusion based on these premises.
Problem Representation
the way you think about a problem. representing problems with symbols or objects, etc.
Charles Spearman
Concluded that cognitive abilities could be narrowed down to one critical g-factor or general intelligence. (The s-factors represent specific knowledge needed to answer questions on a particular test).
J. P. Guilford
Proposed that intelligence consists of 150 different abilities
L. L. Thurstone
Used a statistical technique known as factor analysis to find seven independent primary mental abilities: numerical ability, reasoning, verbal fluency, spatial visualization, perceptual ability, memory, and verbal comprehension.
Raymond B. Cattell
Argued that a g-factor does exist, but cognitive ability consists of fluid intelligence (reasoning and problem solving) and crystallized intelligence (specific knowledge gained from applying fluid intelligence).
Robert Sternberg
Proposed a triarchic theory of intelligence that specifies three important parts of intelligence: componential intelligence (includes metacomponents, performance components, and knowledge-acquisition components), experiential intelligence (abilities to deal with novelty and to automatize processing), and contextual intelligence (practical intelligence and social intelligence).
Howard Gardner
Theory of multiple intelligences proposed seven different components of intelligence that include not only language ability, logical-mathematical thinking, and spatial thinking but also musical, bodily kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal thinking.
Sir Frances Galton Theory
Possible to improve genetic characteristics through breeding
Binet
Designed an intelligence test of increasing difficulty
Average IQ Test Score
100
Reaction Range
implies that genetics may limit or define a potential range of IQ, but the environment can influence the score as well
Attachment
The close emotional relationship between an infant and his or her caretakers
Secure Attachments
Children use parent as secure base from which they explore their environment. They become upset if parent leaves the room but are glad to see the parent when the parent returns
Insecure Attachments/Anxious-Ambivalent
Tend not to use parent as a secure base (and may often cling or refuse to leave parent). They become very upset when parent leaves and may often appear angry or become more upset when parent returns
Avoidant
These children seek little contact with parent and are not concerned when parent leaves. Usually avoid interaction when parent returns.
Aggression
Defined as intentionally inflicting physical or psychological harm on others
Frustration-aggression Hypothesis
Frustration produces aggression. This aggression may directed at the frustrater or another target (scapegoating)
Social Learning Theory (Aggression)
People learn to behave aggressively by observing aggressive models and having their aggressive responses reinforced. Media or TV, which can contain violence can also can cause aggression
Altruism/prosocial behavior
Selfless concern for the welfare of others
Bystander Effect
States that people are less likely to help someone in an emergency situation when others are present. Everybody thinks someone else will help.
Diffusion of Responsibility
The tendency for people to feel that responsibility for helping is shared or diffused among those who are present
Empathy
an emotional experience that involves a subjective grasp of another person’s feelings; more likely to help others in need
Empathy-arousal-hypothesis
Empathy has the power to motivate altruism
Lawrence Kohlberg
Developed a model of moral development
Based on individual[s responses to moral questions called moral dilemmas
Kohlberg’s Theory: Level I
–Six Stages
–Level I. Preconventional Morality
1) Punishment orientation: A person complies with rules during this stage in order to avoid punishment
2) Reward orientation: An action is determined by one’s own needs
Kohlberg’s Theory Level II
–Level II. Conventional Morality
3) Good-girl/Good-boy orientation: Good behavior is that which pleases others and gets their approval
4) Authority orientation: Emphasis is on upholding the law, order, and authority and doing one’s duty by following societal rules
Kohlberg’s Theory Level III
–Level III. Postconventional Morality
5) Social contract orientation: Flexible understanding that people obey rules because they are necessary for the social order but that rules can change if there are good reasons and better alternatives
6) Morality of individual principles orientation: Behavior is directed by self-chosen ethical principles. High value is placed on justice, dignity, and equality
Social Learning Theory
Children learn gender roles because they are rewarded for appropriate behavior and punished for inappropriate gender role behaviors. Children also watch and imitate behaviors of others
Cognitive Theory
Kohlberg
Children learn about gender same as they acquire cognitive concepts. Classify other things as female and male after they have classified themselves. Prefer same gender playmates, activities. Do not understand person’s gender stays same despite changes in outward physical appearance
Psychoanalytic/Freud’s Theory
Freud’s theory proposes that children establish their gender role identity as a result of identification with their same-sex parent during the Phallic stage.
Interpersonal attraction
Refers to close relationships with others and those factors that contribute to a relationship being formed
Temperament
Refers to a child’s characteristic mood and activity level
Longitudinal Sutdy
Repeatedly observes and follows-up the same group of individuals as they mature
Cross-sectional Study
Involves different groups of individuals who are at different ages at the same point in time
Social Motives
Conditions that direct people toward establishing or maintaining relationships with others. Learned through socialization and cultural conditioning
Social needs
Internal conditions related to feelings about self or others and establishing and maintaining relationships
Need for Achievement (nAch)
Social need that directs a person to constantly strive for excellence and success
Henry Murray
Identified a number of social motives or needs and believed that people have these social motives in differing degrees. Developed the Thematic Apperception Test to measure strength of these various needs.
Emotion
a subjective conscious experience or cognitive component, bodily or physiological arousal, and overt or behavioral expressions.
Trust vs Mistrust
Erikson (First Year of Life)
Infant’s needs must be met by responsive, sensitive caretakers. If this occurs, a basic sense of trust and optimism develops. If t, mistrust and fear of the future results.
Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
Erikson (1-3 years)
Children begin to express self-control by climbing, exploring, touching, and toilet training. Parents can foster a sense of autonomy by encouraging children to try new things. If restrained or punished to harshly, shame and doubt can develop
Initiative vs Guilt
Erikson (3-5 years)
Children assume more responsibility. Through play, children learn to plan, undertake, and carry out a task. Parents can encourage initiative by giving children the freedom to play, to use their imagination, etc. Children who are criticized or discouraged from taking the initiative, learn to feel guilty
Industry vs Inferiority
Erikson (6-12 years)
In elementary school, children learn skills that are valued by society. Success or failure while learning these skills can have lasting effects on a child’s feelings of adequacy
Identity vs Role Confusion
Erikson (Adolescence)
The development of identity involves finding out who we are, what we value, and where we are headed in life. In their search for identity, adolescents experiment with different roles. If we establish an integrated image of ourselves as a unique person, then we establish a sense of identity. If not, role confusion results and can be expressed by individuals withdrawing and isolating themselves from family and friends or by losing themselves in the crowd.
Adolescence
The time in development between childhood and adulthood
