Class differences of achievement - external factors (material deprivation)

Question 1

Patterns of class differences in education

what are free school meals and how do they help?

Answer 1

the government recognises the benefits of providing a healthy meal to the disadvantaged pupils. The education act 1996 requires schoold to provide meals, free of cost, to disadvantaged pupils who are aged between 5-16

Question 2

Patterns of class differences in education

what are the findings for free school meals?

Answer 2

• 2014/15, 60% of pupils not eligible for FSM got 5 GCSEs at A star-C compared to 33% who were eligible

Question 3

Material deprivation

what is material deprivation and what problems does it cause for pupils?

Answer 3

• Material deprivation is the inability to afford basic resources, which can impact a pupil’s educational achievement.
• This will mean pupils are unable to afford things like sufficient food, heating or clothing and educational resources, which is subsequently very likely to affect educational performance and lead to underachievement.

Question 4

Material deprivation

what is the impact of material deprivation? (use a theorist)

Answer 4

Washbrook and Waldfogel (2010) - 31% of the difference in scores between 5 year olds from middle-income and low-income families was explained by material deprivation

Question 5

Material deprivation

what does Hirsch (2007) say about the advantages that wealthier students have?

Answer 5

Advantages that wealthier students have:
* More likely to have structured out-of-school activities such as sports or music lessons - helped students to learn particular skills and gave them greater confidence in school, helping them to achieve higher grades.
* More space (such as their own bedroom)
* More likely to benefit from private education.
- Quality of the school only has a 14% difference.

Question 6

Material deprivation

what does Smith and Noble (1995) say about the ‘barries to learning’ that can result from low income?

Answer 6

• High supplementary costs - families are unable to afford school uniforms, school trips, transport to and from school, classroom materials and, in some cases, school textbooks, this can lead to students being isolated, bullied and stigmatised. As a result, they may fall behind in their school work.
• Low income reduces the likelihood of a computer with internet access, a desk, educational toys, books, space to do homework and a comfortable well-heated home
• The marketisation of schools means that there will be better resourced, oversubscribed schools in more affluent areas, while socially disadvantaged students are concentrated in a limited number of increasingly unpopular schools
• Older working-class students are more likely to have to work part-time to support their studies, or to have to care for younger siblings if informal childcare networks break down, affecting their attendance at school

Question 7

Pupil premium - Material deprivation

what is pupil premium and how does it help pupils?

Answer 7

is funding to improve educational outcomes for disadvantaged pupils in state-funded schools in England. Schools can use this money on:
* supporting the high-quality teaching, such as staff professional development
* providing targeted academic support, such as tutoring, including through the National Tutoring Programme
* tackling non-academic barriers to academic success, such as difficulties in attendance, behaviour and social and emotional wellbeing

Students supported by the pupil premium do exceptionally well in all years. However, evaluating the impact of such a funding policy is fraught with difficulties because of changes over time in the economy, legal definitions, prevalence of disadvantage, and metrics used.

Question 8

Examples of material deprivation

what are the three examples of material deprivation?

Answer 8

• Diet and health
• Poor housing
• Financial impact

Question 9

Examples of material deprivation

Diet and health affects

Answer 9

• One in four households with children experienced food insecurity in September 2022 – affecting four million children.
• Howard (2001) states that young people from poorer homes have lower intakes of energy, vitamins and minerals
• Wilkinson (1996) found that amongst 10 year olds, the lower the social class, the higher the rate of hyperactivity, anxiety and conduct disorders.
• causes to lose focus in class as they wouldn’t have the energy
• would miss more daysof school as they would be sick more often since their immune system would be weaker due to the poor diet

Question 10

Examples of material deprivation

poor housing affects

Answer 10

Working-class households are likely to be:
* More crowded
* Colder due to poorer insulation and less money for heating
* Less settled - More likely to be rented.

The Guardian - Children in poor housing:
* are between 1.5 and 3.5 times more likely to develop a cough.
* have a 25% higher risk of severe ill-health and disability during childhood and early adulthood.
* are 10 times more likely to contract meningitis in overcrowded homes.

Question 11

Examples of material deprivation

Financial impact affects

Answer 11

**Gibson and Asthana (1999) **
Ways in which poverty can negatively affect the educational performance of children. For example:
* Higher levels of sickness in poorer homes may mean more absence from school and falling behind with lessons
* Less able to afford ‘hidden costs’ of free state education: books and toys are not bought, and computers are not available in the home
* Tuition fees and loans would be a greater source of anxiety to those from poorer backgrounds.
* Poorer parents are less likely to have access to pre-school or nursery facilities.
* Young people from poorer families are more likely to have part-time jobs, such as paper rounds, baby sitting or shop work, creating a conflict between the competing demands of study and paid work.

Question 12

Examples of material deprivation

Other findings

Answer 12

• Ball (2005) points out how the introduction of marketisation means that those who have more money have a greater choice of state schools because of selection by mortgage.
• Conner et al (2001) and Forsyth and Furlong (2003) both found that the introduction of tuition fees in HE puts working class children off going to university because of fear of debt.
• Leon Fenstein (2003) found that low income is related to low cognitive reasoning skills amongst children as young as two years old.
• The existence of private schools means the wealthy can afford a better education. Children from private schools are over-represented in the best universities.

Question 13

Evaluation of material deprivation

evaluate material deprivation

Answer 13

• Too deterministic as some students from poor backgrounds do well - it would be more accurate to say that poverty disadvantages working class students and makes it more difficult for them to succeed, rather than poverty being a causal factor
• There are other differences between classes that may lead to working class underachievement. For example, those from working class backgrounds are not just materially deprived, they are also culturally deprived.
• Material deprivation theorists ignore the importance of culture.
• As with all external factors, it ignores the impact of internal factors.

Question 14

Cultural deprivation

what does cultural deprivation mean?

Answer 14

• This is being deprived of cultural attributes necessary for educational success.
• For example, the working class may lack attitudes and values necessary for success in education.
• They may also lack the knowledge to succeed because they have not benefited from the same informal education from their parents.
• They may even lack the ability to speak, read, write and think in ways which will help them in education because of the way they have been brought up.

Question 15

Cultural deprivation

impotance of cultural deprivation

Answer 15

Feinstein (2003) found that material deprivation had some effect on achievement, but that cultural deprivation was much more important – parental involvement and support largely determines child’s success

Goodman and Gregg (2010) agreed with Feinstein. They identified cultural factors that helped explain low educational achievement among poor children:
* the quality of mother-child interactions and the amount of time parents spent with children (attending schools, helping with homework and discussing school reports).
* the overall value placed on education by the parent
* the extent of negative behaviour by the children (for example truancy) compared to positive behaviour (participation in sport)

Question 16

Subcultural values - Cultural deprivation

what does sugarman (1970) and lockwood (1966) say about subcultural values in working class? (time orientation, gratification, collectivism nand individualism, attitudes to luck)

Answer 16

• Time orientation = present-time orientattion, live life in the moment rather than worrying about the future
• Gratification = seek immediate gratifivation, enjoy yourself now; for example, spend your wage packet as soon as you get it
• Collectivism and individualism = success achieved through collective action, for example, a union going on strike
• Attitudes to luck = your chances in life are based upon luck or fate (fatalism)

Question 17

Subcultural values - Cultural deprivation

what does sugarman (1970) and lockwood (1966) say about subcultural values in middle class? (time orientation, gratification, collectivism nand individualism, attitudes to luck)

Answer 17

• Time orientation = Future-time orientation, worry more about their future and focus more on what can and will happen.
• Gratification = work harder in the present to obtain a bigger achievement in the future. Deferred gratification
• Collectivism and individualism = success to achieved through individual work such as getting high grades by studying
• Attitudes to luck = Achievements are based of your own talents and abilities, make your own luck

Question 18

Language - Cultural deprivation

what does Bernstein (1972) say about speech within education?

Answer 18

Bernstein (1972) argued that speech shapes educational achievement. He distinguishes two types of speech pattern:
- restricted codes, which involve simpler use of language and is used by working-class students, and contains grammatical errors, simple short sentences, and is description based.
- elaborated code is used by middle-class students, and contains a wider vocabulary, more complex longer sentences, and is analytical.

• Elaborated codes are necessary for exam success and to communicate with teachers. Bernstein argues schools fail to teach working class children how to use the elaborated code so they are less able to be successful.
• Socialisation into the restricted code can make children fall behind in the education system
• the lack of these skills, which are vital for educational success, may make working class children feel less confident then middle class children in a school environment

Question 19

Parents’ education - Cultural deprivation

what does Douglas (1964) say about how parents’ education affetcs children within education?

Answer 19

Douglas (1964)
Middle-class parents are more likely to have achieved better in education and have higher qualifications. This means:
* Parenting style: Middle-class parents are more likely to emphasise discipline and high expectations.
* Parents’ educational behaviours: Middle-class parents are more likely to read to their children, help with homework and attend events such as parents’ evenings.
* More income: Middle-class parents earn more because of their education, and higher income is correlated to higher educational achievement for students.
* Use of income: Middle-class parents are more likely to spend their income in ways that benefit their child’s education.

Question 20

Compensatory education - Cultural deprivation

what is compensatory education and how does it help?

Answer 20

Compensatory education programmes aim to tackle cultural deprivation by providing resources to schools in deprived areas

Early intervention in socialisation
* E.g. Operation Head Start was set up in the 1960s in the USA to ‘enrich’ and develop skills and instil achievement motivation. It included:
* Improving parenting skills
* Setting up nursery classes
* Home visits by educational psychologists
* Sesame Street was part of this programme and tried to pass on the values and skills needed for educational success.

Question 21

Evaluation of cultural deprivation

Evaluate cultural deprivation

Answer 21

• Keddie (1973) – cultural deprivation is a ‘myth’ that blames the victim – working class children are culturally different, not culturally deprived.
• Troyna and Williams (1986) – language is not the problem, the school’s attitude towards language is. Teachers have a ‘speech hierarchy’ – middle class, working class, ‘black speech’.
• Blackstone and Mortimore (1994) - research has not measured parental interest in education adequately – incorrect to say WC parents are less interested in their children’s education.
• Evans (2007) - most working-class parents placed a very high value on education and did encourage their children to do well.
• Gaine and George (1999) – Bernstein oversimplifies the difference between codes and that class differences in speech patterns have declined.

Question 22

Cultural capital

what does Bourdieu (1984) say cultural capital is?

Answer 22

Possession or lack of possession of different types of capital shapes opportunity in society. Capital can be defined as any assets that can improve your chances in life.

Question 23

Cultural capital

what does Bourdieu say are the 4 types of capital which can help in education and all reflect inequalities in society? (give the definition, example, and the impact on education)

Answer 23

Economic capital
- Definition = ownership of wealth
- Example = owning valuable houses, shares, having an income
- Impact on education = Paying for private education or additional tuition.

Cultural capital
- Definition = Having the educational qualifications, lifestyles and knowledge of arts and literature that are valued in society.
- Example = having a degree level qualification or higher
- Impact on education = Parents have knowledge and experience to help their children in education. They can provide an educationally stimulating home environment, so children become familiar with knowledge that is valued at school.

Social capital
- Definition = possession of valuable social contacts
- Example = knowing teaches, head teachers
- Impact on education = May know how to help gain admission to the best educational institutions or to find expert help.

Symbolic capital
- Definition = possession of status
- Example = respected and well known in society
- Impact on education = could help with admission to private or selective schools

Question 24

Cultural capital

how does cultural capital give you advantages in life?

Answer 24

Cultural Capital involves the possession of cultural characteristics that can give you advantages in life. For example:
- Educational qualifications
- Accent
- Vocabulary
- Knowledge of arts
- Fashions and cultural trends
- parents’ educational qualifications
- the way you walk

Question 25

Habitus - Cultural capital

what is habitus and how does it affect education?

Answer 25

• Refers a culture or worldview that is associated with a social class or social group. Our life experiences, as a member of that group, deeply embed in us habits, skills and ways of behaving and thinking.
• Teachers are often middle class themselves; they have a middle-class habitus and therefore find it easier to relate to pupils who are similar. Aspects of a working-class habitus can be interpreted negatively or unconsciously associated with being less academic or intelligent.

Question 26

Habitus - Cultural capital

examples of working class habitus

Answer 26

• Restricted code
• Conscious opposition to the bourgeoisie and its ideas.

Sugarman four features:
* Fatalism
* Collectivism
* Immediate Gratification
* Present-time Orientation

Question 27

Habitus - Cultural capital

examples of middle class habitus

Answer 27

• Reading non-fiction and classical literature
• Watching documentaries
• Learning to play classical instruments (e.g. The Piano)
• Going on educational visits
• Going on holidays abroad
• Teaching the benefits of deferred gratification
• Individualism
• Open to researching the best options

Question 28

Evans (2007) - Cultural capital

what does Evans (2007) say about cultural capital?

Answer 28

• Middle-class mothers were able to use their cultural capital to give their children a head start.
• The mothers tended to have high-level educational qualifications themselves and a good understanding of how children could be stimulated to learn in pre-school years.
• They used their own educational knowledge to incorporate more learning activities into their children’s play.

Question 29

Ball et al. (1994) - Cultural capital

what does Ball et al. (1994) say about cultural capital?

Answer 29

• Middle-class parents used their cultural capital to play the system to ensure that their children are accepted into the schools of their choice. Attempted to make an impression with the headteacher on open day, and knowing how to mount an appeal if their child is unsuccessful in their application to a particular school.
• However, these researchers accept that material advantages are also important and both cultural and material factors interact with factors inside schools

Question 30

Sullivan (2001) - Cultural capital

what does Sullivan (2001) say about cultural capital?

Answer 30

Tested Bourdieu’s concept of cultural capital. Sullivan identified that pupils were more likely to be successful if they:
* read more complex fiction and watched TV programmes such as arts, science and current affairs documentaries rather than soap operas and game shows.
* These helped students develop wider vocabularies and greater knowledge of cultural figures which was reflected in exam performance.

Sullivan found that pupils’ cultural capital was strongly correlated with parental cultural capital (educational qualifications), which is linked to their social class.

Question 31

Selection by morgage - Cultural capital

what does Leech and Campos (2003) say about selction by morgage?

Answer 31

• Middle-class parents are more able to move into the catchment areas of schools that were higher up in the league tables.
• Schools do well
• However, house prices in that area go up causing the working class to be unable to move to that area

Question 32

Evaluation of cultural capital

evaluate cultural capital

Answer 32

Strenghts:
- unlike cultural deprivation theory etc. Bourdieu does not see working class culture as inferior or blame the working classes for the failure of their children
- the theoy links inside and outside school factors, as middle classs families and middle class schools work together to exlcude working class children (Ball’s idea about the school-parent alliance)

Weaknesses:
- Most statistical research suggests material deprivation and economic capital are more significant factors than cultural capital in explaining class differences in educational achievement.
- It may be unfair to blame schools for being biased against working class children – many schools put extra resources into helping working class children.
- may be unfair to blame schools for being biased against working class children - as many schools put extra resources into helping working class children