Class 4

Question 1

The brain can be split up into three distinct features which are?

Answer 1

Brain Stem, cerebrum, & cerebellum.

Question 2

In general what does the brainstem control?

Answer 2

Controls things that are vital functions of ANS

Question 3

What does Medula Oblongata control?

Answer 3

Control of heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, swallowing, & vomiting

Question 4

What does Pons control?

Answer 4

The control of breathing

Question 5

Midbrain controls/contains what?

Answer 5

Contains centres for visual reflex activities

Question 6

What is Reticular Formation/what does it control?

Answer 6

Reticular formation is large part of brain stem consisting of small areas of loosely clustered nuclei & tracts. Helps maintain consciousness, causes awakening from sleep, filters out unimportant information, & contributes to regulating muscle tone. Injury to reticular formation can result in irreversible coma.

Question 7

What is the cerebrum?

Answer 7

Cerebrum makes up largest portion of brain & consists of left & right cerebral hemispheres. Each
hemisphere controls contralateral side of body. Each cerebral hemisphere has 4 lobes.

Question 8

Each cerebral hemisphere has 4 lobes which are?

Answer 8

1. Frontal Lobe
2. Parietal Lobe
3. Occipital Lobe
4. Temporal Lobe

Question 9

What is the Frontal Lobe?

Answer 9

EXECUTIVE FUNCTION (executive functions are set of cognitive processes necessary for cognitive control of behaviour), thinking, planning, problem solving etc.

Question 10

What is the Parietal Lobe?

Answer 10

Interpretation of sensory information. Contains sensory cortex where it receives information from sensory receptors in skin, muscles, & joints of contralateral side of body.

Question 11

What is the Occipital Lobe?

Answer 11

Image processing of eyes

Question 12

Cerebral cortex is the ______________________________. It consists of ______________. Grey matter is dominated by _______________________.

Answer 12

• 3-mm-thick outer layer of the cerebrum
• grey matter
• neuronal cell bodies

Question 13

Remainder of the cerebrum is composed of ________________ (dominated by myelinated tracts) with small islands of grey matter within.

Answer 13

• white matter

Question 14

What is Temporal Lobe?

Answer 14

• Interpreting sounds, language, memory.
• 2 areas Wernicke’s area & Broca’s area

Question 15

What is Wernicke’s area?

Answer 15

Associated with comprehension of sounds
& language. Damage to Wernicke’s area of
temporal lobe results in Wernicke’s aphasia or fluent
aphasia. Aphasia is general term used to describe language disorder. Person will speak fluently in long sentences that have no meaning, add unnecessary
words, & create new words called neologisms.

Question 16

What is Broca’s area?

Answer 16

Associated with expression of sounds & speech.
Damage to Broca’s area of temporal lobe results in
Broca’s aphasia or non-fluent aphasia, in which person will have hard time finding words to speak. It’s the ability to produce language, so they will have trouble speaking, writing, or even signing.

Question 17

What is Apraxia?

Answer 17

Poorly understood neurological disorder characterized by inability to perform familiar movements when asked, even though instruction is understood & there is willingness to perform
movement. Both desire & capacity to move are present by person simply cannot execute the act

Question 18

What is Agnosia?

Answer 18

Inability to accurately process & perceive sensory
information

Question 19

What is Prosopagnosia?

Answer 19

Damage to temporal lobe can cause prosopagnosia
aka faceblindness. Sufferers may not recognize familiar faces. Often misperceived as inability to remember names.

Face blindness often affects people from birth, is usually problem person has for most of their life. Can have a severe impact on everyday because inability to recognize faces is often misinterpreted by others as rudeness. Different people may show different types of level of impairments

Babies are able to recognize a wide variety of individual faces. From early on, children begin to prune their model of faces to those that are frequently exposed to. This part of typical neural pruning, process of removing neurones that are no linger used or useful in brain. Synaptic pruning is
important part of growth & development & is vital part of brains “maintenance routine”

Question 20

What is Anosognosia?

Answer 20

Often mistaken for denial & stubbornness, is actually brain damage that can make it difficult for people to recognize their impairment. Awareness can change from day-to-day or even hour-to-hour, & this can make one’s behavior unpredictable. They may resist help, refuse treatment, become angry & defensive or dangerously overestimate their abilities.

Question 21

The cerebrum has little bumps called __________, grooves are called ____________, and if they’re very deep, called ____________.

Answer 21

• gyri
• sulcui
• fissures

Question 22

What is Central sulcus?

Answer 22

divides frontal & parietal lobe

Question 23

What is Postcentral gyrus?

Answer 23

Lies immediately posterior to central sulcus, involved in somatic sensation

Question 24

What is Precentral gyrus?

Answer 24

Lies immediately anterior to central sulcus, involved in voluntary movement

Question 25

What is Superior temporal gyrus?

Answer 25

Involved in hearing

Question 26

What is Sylvian Fissure?

Answer 26

Separates temporal lobe from frontal & parietal lobe

Question 27

What is Insula?

Answer 27

Borders & separates temporal & frontal lobes

Question 28

What is the insular lobe?

Answer 28

Portion of cerebral cortex folded deep within
lateral sulcus.

Question 29

What is lateral sulcus?

Answer 29

Separates temporal lobe from parietal & frontal lobes within each hemisphere.

Question 30

The insula plays a role in __________________________.

Answer 30

diverse functions usually linked to consciousness, emotion & homeostasis

Question 31

What are Von Economo neurons?

Answer 31

Found at a higher density in frontal insular cortex.
Are bipolar neurons, spindle shaped (wide in middle & taper on both ends) provide communication across relatively large brains of great apes, elephants & cetaceans.

Fast processing neurons seem to be involved in cognitive-emotional processes specific to highly intelligent animals, ex. empathy & metacognitive emotional feelings/judgment (metacognition is
awareness of one’s thought processes & understanding of patterns behind them).

May have a lot to do with empathy & compassion comes from imaging studies of people suffering from Frontotemporal Dementia. These sufferers often undergo startling change in personality marked by lack of empathy. These “extra fancy” &
vulnerable neurons start to disintegrate at about same time as empathy starts to disappear.

Question 32

Functional imaging experiments have revealed that insula has an important role in?

Answer 32

• awareness of pain in others
• bodily self awareness, for example HR & sense of bodily ownership
• response of disgust to bad smells & food
• response of disgust to social norm violations
• depersonalization disorder: Altered state of self awareness that results in feeling of disconnection, from oneself, ones surroundings, or both. These feelings can be triggered by intense stress or experiencing/witnessing disturbing events. When transient these feelings are considered normal response.
• Autoscopic phenomenon: visual experience where one sees an image of oneself in external space, viewed from within one’s own body-the out of body experience (OBE)

Question 33

What is depersonalization disorder? LCL

Answer 33

Altered state of self awareness that results in feeling of disconnection, from oneself, ones surroundings, or both. These feelings can be triggered by intense stress or experiencing/witnessing disturbing events. When transient these feelings are considered normal response.

Question 34

what is Autoscopic phenomenon?

Answer 34

visual experience where one sees an image of oneself in external space, viewed from within one’s own body-the out of body experience (OBE)

Question 35

What is Thalamus?

Answer 35

Major relay station for most sensory input to cerebral cortex. Also help relay motor signals, & involved in regulation of consciousness & alertness.

Question 36

What is Epithalamus?

Answer 36

Main function is to connect limbic system to other parts of the brain. Contains pineal gland. Involved in secretion of melatonin (involved in circadian rhythms).

Question 37

What is Hypothalamus?

Answer 37

A single hypothalamus is found behind eyes, and above pituitary gland. It’s divided into many distinct nuclei. Major function is homeostasis. Directs ANS & endocrine system & is influenced by many brain regions.

Main regulator of ultradian & circadian cycles.
Retina, along with photoreceptors that project to occipital lobe, also contains specialized cells that project directly to suprachiasmatic nucleus of hypothalamus.

Question 38

What are Circadian Rhythms?

Answer 38

Complete one cycle daily

Question 39

What is Ultradian Rhythms?

Answer 39

Greater frequency than (circadian), recurrent cycle repeated throughout a day (24 hour), ex. hormonal secretions, temperature, nostril dilation, & allergic diseases symptom severity. Circadian rhythm influences most ultradian rhythms.

Question 40

What is Infradian rhythms?

Answer 40

Has periods linger than a day e.g. human menstrual
cycle, seasonal issues such as seasonal affective disorder. Those affected are fine throughout most of year, but as a result of changes in amount of sunlight, exhibit depressive symptoms in winter.

Question 41

What is suprachiasmatic nucleus?

Answer 41

Works like internal clock, signalling other brain areas when it’s time to be awake & when to sleep, passes it on to pineal gland, then secretes hormone melatonin. Melatonin levels start to go up once sun sets & drop in morning when sun rises. Light is strongest synchronizing (entraining) agent for circadian clock.

Non-photic signals, such as melatonin supplements, physical activity, & stress, can also influence timing of circadian rhythms.

Question 42

What is Autonomic tone?

Answer 42

Balance between sympathetic & parasympathetic
nervous activity which is regulated by hypothalamus. Normal function of body needs tight balance between each system.

Question 43

What is the Pituitary Gland?

Answer 43

Pea-sized gland at base of brain, produces numerous hormones. Each of these hormones affects specific part of body (target organ or tissue).
Because pituitary controls function of most other endocrine glands, it’s often called master gland. Has two main glands, anterior & posterior pituitary.

Question 44

What is the Hypothalamic Pituitary Axis (HPA)?

Answer 44

Relationship between hypothalamus, pituitary gland & adrenal cortex is called HPA axis (alliance).

Question 45

What is the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus ?

Answer 45

PARAVENTRICULAR NUCLEUS OF THE HYPOTHALAMUS stimulates anterior lobe of pituitary gland to release cortisol, major stress hormone, from adrenal cortex. In normal release, cortisol has widespread actions which help restore homeostasis after stress. Cortisol levels rise in morning just before waking to increase blood glucose levels. Cortisol helps limit functions that aren’t essential in fight-or-flight situation. This acute, short-term stress response via HPA axis, stimulates immune response & arouses immunological memory for invaders. Once threat passes, usual levels return. Chronic stress leads to prolonged & excess cortisol secretion reducing sleep quality, which suppresses ability of immune system to do its job.

Question 46

What are the adrenal glands?

Answer 46

Lie above each kidney. Each adrenal gland
consists of two endocrine glands, central part is called adrenal medulla and other portion is cortex

Question 47

The adrenal medulla secretes ________________.

Answer 47

adrenalin (epinephrine)

Question 48

The adrenal cortex secrets?

Answer 48

1) androgens (e.g. testosterone)
2) glucocorticoids (a class of steroid hormones secreted during stress. Main glucocorticoid secreted by adrenal glands is cortisol

Commonly refer to these synthetic glucocorticoids as steroids. Often confused with anabolic steroid
compounds, used predominately to build muscle mass.

Cortisol works with epinephrine to create flashbulb memory. Flashbulb memory is highlight detailed, exceptionally vivid snapshot of surprising, consequential, or emotionally arousing event; although people are highly confident in their memories, details of memories can be forgotten & can be inaccurate.

Question 49

What is Addisons Disease?

Answer 49

Caused by destruction of adrenal cortex. Most common cause is autoimmunity. Diagnosis depends on showing that secretion of cortisol is low & that adrenal glands are damaged

Question 50

What is Cushing’s Syndrome?

Answer 50

Collection of signs & symptoms due to prolonged exposure to cortisol resulting from medications or an adrenal tumor.

Question 51

Cortisone, Addison’s disease and Cushing syndome symptoms include?

Answer 51

weight gain, mostly around midsection & upper back, rounding of face (moon face) due to fat deposits, thinning skin, easy bruising, muscle weakness, severe fatigue, irritability, difficulty concentrating, high blood pressure, headache & osteoporosis. Cognitive conditions include memory & attention dysfunctions, as well as depression.

Question 52

What is a “cortisol saliva test”?

Answer 52

A “cortisol saliva test” samples saliva collected at night to see if cortisol levels are high. Cortisol levels drop significantly at night in people without Cushing’s syndrome.

Question 53

Long-term cortisone use may lead to _______________.

Answer 53

Cushing syndrome. Abruptly stopping can cause low blood pressure, low blood sugar, coma, & death.

Question 54

Massage modifications to take into consideration when taking Prednisone or Cortisone

Answer 54

For patient taking prednisone or similar drug, massage techniques that place stress on muscles, bones, & joints should be modified.

Since Cortisone cortisone also depresses patient’s
immune system, hygienic practices & measures
become even more important for massage therapists.