Class 3 - Animal Research - History of Behaviour

Question 1

Ancient Comparative Psychology - Pre Darwin – from her on—

Answer 1

– from her on—

Question 2

What is Comparative Psychology? Give 2 examples.

Answer 2

The study of the – behaviour and mental processes – of non-human animals, – with an attempt at comparing it to humans.

Example = understanding how human brain works as comparison to mice – and finding that boths brain isn’t that different afterall. – We have the same brain parts, – they are just located in different areas of brain.

Example = we discovered neuroplasticity by looking at how worm understood its environment. – So we look at animals – that share same aspects of what we are – and we use that to make assumptions about humans.

Question 3

What is the goal of Comparative Psychology?

Answer 3

To understand similarities between different species (animals, humans) – and use these similarities to guide our research.

Question 4

What is Anthropomorphic Error?

Answer 4

Mistakenly – thinking/attributing – that animals have human traits/qualities.

Question 5

Give an example of Anthropomorphic Error? - when we do it to inanimate (things that are not alive) objects too?

Answer 5

Hitting a computer because it is slow, –here we mistakenly think/atrribute that computer is intelligent like humans – but it is not – to realize that there are not stupid computer only stupid humans. — we do so to feel liberated, to relieve stress.

Question 6

What is important to undersatnd in order to understand Comparitive Psychology?

Answer 6

Evolution

Question 7

Talk about Evolution in relation to Comparative Psychology.

Answer 7

All human research begin in animals, and this is the reason why we have a lot of medical advancements - Initially we thought that humans are different than animals eventhough there were similarities in some behvaiours – But then we learned that humans belonged to animal category (Aristole - classification). But Charles Darwin took this Evoluation way too far.

Question 8

Ancient Comparative Psychology - Post Darwin – from her on—

As a general rule what did people want to understand about animals?

Answer 8

As a general rule people wanted to understand animal behaviour because

• it was important for human survival –
• because most humans were farmers during ancient and pre-modern era.
• Also, ancient Egyptians studied cats as their religion was based around cats.

Question 9

How have we been Anthropomorphizing?

Answer 9

Anthropomorphic means Mistakenly – thinking/attributing – that animals have human traits/qualities.

As a general rule people wanted to understand animal behaviour because it was important for human survival – because most humans were farmers during ancient and pre-modern era.

Also, ancient Egyptians studied cats as their religion was based around cats.

Rigveda from ancient Indian tried to capture distinction between animals.

Hitting a computer because it is slow, –here we mistakenly think/atrribute that computer is intelligent like humans – but it is not – to realize that there are not stupid computer only stupid humans. — we do so to feel liberated, to relieve stress.

Question 10

What did Rigveda capture?
- classification, Aristotle

Answer 10

Rigveda from ancient Indian captured distinction between animals. For example, animals that live on air, water, and land.

Here we see that Rigveda from ancient Indian also classified animals similar to Aristotle. who wrote a book De animal wheere he classified plants, animals and humans. – He identified that each animal had a specific purpose in nature and that there was a hirerachy between humans and animals.

Question 11

How did Aristotle classify animals?

Answer 11

Based on 4 cases:

1. Material
2. Formal
3. Efficient
4. Final

Question 12

What did Material comprise of when Aristotle categorized animals?

Answer 12

What kind of organic matter is found in animals.
E.g., do they have a brain? What kind of brain do they have?

Question 13

What did Formal comprise of when Aristotle categorized animals?

Answer 13

How is organ connected to skelton, muscles?
E.g., does the animal,worm have a spine?

Question 14

What did Efficient comprise of when Aristotle categorized animals?

Answer 14

Who/what made the animal?
e.g., dogs parents through reproduction.
was made though egg and sperm.

Question 15

What did Final comprise of when Aristotle categorized animals?

Answer 15

What is animal’s purpose?
e.g., living like dogs, playing with ball*.

Question 16

What led to medical advancement, animals research, human research.

Answer 16

Rigveda from ancient Indian captured distinction between animals. For example, animals that live on air, water, and land.

Here we see that Rigveda from ancient Indian also classified animals similar to Aristotle. who wrote a book De animal wheere he classified plants, animals and humans. – He identified that each animal had a specific purpose in nature and that there was a hirerachy between humans and animals. Aristotle classified animals based on 4 cases: Material, Formal, Efficient, Final. —- SPECIALLY AFTER WW, teh resaerch advanced as there were a lot of mental gealth issues. – led to resaerch on animals – hence the advancement.

Anthropomorphic means Mistakenly – thinking/attributing – that animals have human traits/qualities.

As a general rule people wanted to understand animal behaviour because it was important for human survival – because most humans were farmers during ancient and pre-modern era.

Also, ancient Egyptians studied cats as their religion was based around cats.

The study of the – behaviour and mental processes – of non-human animals, – with an attempt at comparing it to humans.

Example = understanding how human brain works as comparison to mice – and finding that boths brain isn’t that different afterall. – We have the same brain parts, – they are just located in different areas of brain.

Example = we discovered neuroplasticity by looking at how worm understood its environment. – So we look at animals – that share same aspects of what we are – and we use that to make assumptions about humans.

THIS all led to animals research which led to advancement of medicine.

Rat example Kevin research. at box, illicit depression in animals than inject them with medication (vs. not), see hoe long they try to escapr the water or tail box thing.

Question 17

Modern Comparative Psychology - Post Darwin – from here on—

Answer 17

– from here on—

Question 18

What did Darwin proposed based on Evolution?

Answer 18

Evolution occurs thorugh natural selection, – meaning that individual traits which make them better adapted to environmnet – are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing this advantage to their offspring.

Question 19

describe what Charles Darwin studied based on following picture.

Answer 19

Charles Darwin’s most important discovery was how the environment affects animals. He grew up ethological (saw animals, what they did). —

When Darwin arrived at the islands, he noticed that the animals were slightly different from each other. He studied finches and saw that their beaks had different shapes. He realized that each island had different food sources.

On islands with lots of nuts, finches had short, strong beaks. – On islands with worms, finches had long, thin beaks. – Darwin developed the idea that different species adapt to their environments.

He suggested that in the past, all islands had nuts. The birds with short, strong beaks survived because they could eat the nuts. Over time, only birds with the right beak shape for their food source survived and reproduced.

Question 20

What was the Zeitgeist about Charles Darwin - Evolution theory?

Answer 20

Before Darwin, humans were often seen as fundamentally separate from animals. – However, Darwin’s work suggested that humans are part of the animal kingdom, sharing common ancestry with other species. – This sparked debate between the people who embrased it and who opposed it based on religious, scientific and social grounds. – Darwin took evolution way to far, leading to antropomosphism. – This shift in thinking influenced how psychologists studied behavior and mental processes, leading to new scientific approaches like palentology, biogeography, comparative anatomy. – Many ideas in biology unified, like genetics, anthropology, life cycle, reproduction.

Question 21

What was the Zeitgeist about Charles Darwin - Evotion theory?
Name 5 Connections to Psychology.

Answer 21

1. Comparative Psychology
2. Evolutionary Psychology
3. Sociobiology
4. Anthropomorphism and Caution
5. Impact on Research Methods

Question 22

What was the Zeitgeist about Charles Darwin - Evolution theory?
Explain Comparative Psychology.

Answer 22

Darwin’s theory encouraged scientists to study animals to understand human behavior. – The idea was that by observing similarities between species, we could uncover fundamental psychological principles.

Question 23

What was the Zeitgeist about Charles Darwin - Evotion theory?
Explain Evolutionary Psychology.

Answer 23

This field emerged from – Darwin’s influence, – of understaning human behavior and mental processes from a evolution perspective. – It suggests that psychological traits, like fear responses evolved because they were advantageous for survival and reproduction.

Question 24

What was the Zeitgeist about Charles Darwin - Evotion theory?
Explain Sociobiology.

Answer 24

E.O. Wilson expanded on Darwin’s ideas by blending biology with sociology, – leading to the nature vs. nurture debate. – This shifted focus from just environmental influences (behaviorism) to considering genetic and evolutionary factors.

Question 25

What was the Zeitgeist about Charles Darwin - Evolution theory? Explain **Anthropomorphism and Caution**. Give example.

Answer 25

While Darwin's work **highlighted** **similarities** between **humans** and **animals**, -- it also **led** to **overgeneralizations**. *For example*: **The Clever Hans effect** showed -- the **risk** of **assuming** **animals** have **human-like cognitive abilities** without proper **scientific controls.**

Question 26

What was the Zeitgeist about Charles Darwin - Evolution theory? Explain **Impact on Research Methods**. Give 2 example.

Answer 26

Darwin’s **emphasis** on **observation** and **adaptation influenced experimental designs** in **psychology**, such as ***behavioral studies with animals*** (e.g., ***Open Field Test***, ***Skinner Box***). These methods helped **psychologists** study complex **behaviors under controlled conditions**.

Question 27

What was the Zeitgeist about Charles Darwin - Evotion theory? Explain 5 Connections to Psychology.

Answer 27

1. **Comparative** **Psychology**: **Darwin’s theory encouraged scientists** to study **animals** to **understand** **human behavior**. -- The ***idea*** was that by **observing** **similarities** between **species**, we could **uncover** **fundamental psychological principles.** 2. **Evolutionary** **Psychology**: This field **emerged from Darwin's influence**, focusing on **how evolution shapes human behavior** and **mental processes**. -- It suggests that **psychological** **traits**, like **fear** **responses** or **social behaviors**, evolved because they were **advantageous** for **survival** and **reproduction**. 3. **Sociobiology**: **E.O. Wilson expanded** on Darwin’s ideas by **blending biology with sociology**, -- **leading** to the **nature vs. nurture debate**. -- This helped **integrate biological perspectives into psychology**, **shifting focus** from just **environmental influences** (***behaviorism***) to **considering genetic** and **evolutionary factors**. 4. **Anthropomorphism and Caution**: While Darwin's work **highlighted** **similarities** between **humans** and **animals**, -- it also **led** to **overgeneralizations**. ***For example***: **The Clever Hans effect** showed -- the **risk** of **assuming** **animals** have **human-like cognitive abilities** without proper **scientific controls.** 5. **Impact on Research Methods**: Darwin’s **emphasis** on **observation** and **adaptation influenced experimental designs** in **psychology**, such as ***behavioral studies with animals*** (e.g., ***Open Field Test***, ***Skinner Box***). These methods helped **psychologists** study complex **behaviors under controlled conditions**.

Question 28

Which 2 problematic intellectual revolution arose in case of -- the Zeitgeist about Charles Darwin - Evotion theory? -- Give 1 example.

Answer 28

1. People **struggled** with the **idea** -- that **humans are not supernatural**. 2. People began **antropomorphizing** that **humans** and **animals** are **a lot simila**r.

Question 29

Give an example of how people have misinterpreted Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution.

Answer 29

**Survival of the Fittest**: People considered **poverty** a **good thing** -- as it **eliminates** **people** -- who **do not** have -- **good survival techniques**.

Question 30

How were Charles Darwin's ideas on **natural selection misinterpreted** to justify practices like **segregation** and **sterilization**, -- and **why** does this **misapplication** **conflict** with the **core principles of his theory**?

Answer 30

**Charles Darwin's** ideas on **natural selection** were **misinterpreted** -- to **justify** **harmful practices** like ***segregation*** and ***sterilization*** -- through the **development** of **eugenics**, -- a **concept** **promoted** by his **cousin**, **Francis Galton**. -- **Eugenics** falsely **claimed** that **society** could "**improve**" the **human race** by **controlling** **reproduction**, -- **favoring** certain **traits** while **eliminating others deemed undesirable**. -- This **led** to **forced** ***sterilizations*** and ***discriminatory policies*** against **marginalized groups**. However, this **misapplication** **conflicts** with **Darwin’s theory** because: 1. **Natural Selection is a Natural Process**: Darwin described evolution as an unplanned, natural process driven by environmental pressures, not something that should be controlled by humans. 2. **No Hierarchy** of “**Better**” or “**Worse**” **Traits**: Darwin **never suggested** that **some human traits** or **groups** are **inherently superior**. -- Evolution focuses on **traits that improve survival in specific environments**.

Question 32

How did Galton and Darwin’s ideas challenge anthropomorphism in animal behavior research, and how might Morgan’s Cannon explain a dog’s reaction to peeing on the carpet, as compared to how a child reacts to a parent's emotional response after a fall? Additionally, what role does C. Lloyd’s view of animal consciousness play in distinguishing between human-like emotions and reactions in animals?

Answer 32

**Galton** and **Darwin** challenged **anthropomorphism** and emphasized that **animals don't share human-like emotions**. -- **Morgan’s Cannon** would explain **a dog’s reaction to peeing on the carpet** as a response to the **owner's behavior**, **not** **guilt**. -- Similarly, **children** react to their **parent's emotional cues after a fall**, rather than **understanding the event itself**. -- **C. Lloyd** **argued** that **animals have consciousness** but **should not be seen** as **experiencing human emotions**, **suggesting** that **behaviors** like an ***animal’s eye watering*** are ***reactions*** to ***events***, ***not signs of sadness***.

Question 33

How did the shift towards behaviorism influence our understanding of animal consciousness, and why is it important to study animal behavior from an observational perspective, focusing on actions rather than assuming a human-like level of consciousness? How does this relate to Morgan’s Cannon and C. Lloyd’s view of animal consciousness?

Answer 33

The **shift** to **behaviorism** focused on **observable actions** ***rather*** than **animal consciousness**, -- **suggesting** animals should be **studied based on their behavior**. -- Morgan’s Cannon warns **against anthropomorphizing animals**, while **C. Lloyd** acknowledges **animal consciousness** -- but **emphasizes** it’s **different** from **human consciousness**. -- **Both** views **support** **interpreting** **animal behavior** through **observable actions**, **not human-like emotions**.

Question 34

How did the shift in **zeitgeist** towards increased objectivity in studying animal behavior, focusing solely on measurable characteristics, impact our understanding of animal consciousness and behavior, and how does this relate to the principles of behaviorism and Morgan’s Cannon?

Answer 34

The **shift** towards **objectivity** in studying animal behavior focused on **measurable actions**, -- **aligning** with **behaviorism** and **Morgan’s Cannon**, -- which **cautioned** against **attributing human-like emotions to animals**. ---- While this **approach** made studies **more scientific**, it **sometimes overlooked** the **complexity** of **animal consciousness**, as **C. Lloyd pointed** **out**, -- **suggesting** animals have **consciousness** but it's **different** from **humans**.

Question 35

How did Wilson’s integration of sociology and biology shape the nature vs. nurture debate, and how did this lead to the development of sociobiology and evolutionary psychology? How does this perspective influence contemporary animal research?

Answer 35

**Wilson’s** idea of **combining** **sociology** and **biology** -- helped **start** the **nature vs. nurture debate**, -- **showing** we need to **consider both influences on behavior**. - While behaviourist focused on nurture, evoloutionarist focused on nature - This led to **sociobiology** and **later evolutionary psychology**, which **recognized** that the **brain**, like ***other body parts, is shaped by biology***. --- --** Early animal research lacked rigor**, but **now we focus on more careful studies**, like the ***open field test,*** to ***measure anxiety in animals***.

Question 36

Contemporary Comparative Psycholgy -- Post Darwin --- from here on---

Answer 36

--- from here on---

Question 37

How did Wilson's integration of sociology and biology shape the nature vs. nurture debate, and how did this lead to the development of sociobiology and evolutionary psychology? How did early animal experiments, such as the open field test, contribute to our understanding of anxiety-related behavior, and why were they considered less rigorous than contemporary methods?

Answer 37

**Wilson’s **idea of **combining** **sociology** and **biology** helped create the **nature vs. nurture debate**, -- **leading** to **sociobiology** and **evolutionary psychology**. -- This **approach** **showed** that both **biology** and **environment** **shape behavior**. -- **Early animal experiments**, like the **open field test**, helped us **study anxiety** by **measuring** **how much time an animal spent in the center of a box**. -- The **more time it spend**, the more **anxious** it **was**. -- These tests were **important** but **NOT** very **rigorous** **compared** to **today's more careful methods**.

Question 38

How did the shift toward **standardization** in **animal research**, like the use of **environment enrichment**, **improve** **experimental methods**?

Answer 38

The shift to standardization, including environment enrichment, **helped make experiments more accurate** by **mimicking** **real-life conditions for animals**. For example, providing **mice** with **exercise wheels** and **cognitive challenges**, like **maze tasks** or **food puzzles**. -- This addresses that animals are **tested** in **environments similar** to their **natural habitats**, -- **not cramped cages**.

Question 39

How did the **need** for **standardized protocols** **contribute** to the **development of tests** like the ***Open Field Test***, ***Shuttle Box***, and ***Forced Swim Task***?

Answer 39

The idea of understand behaviour and mental process from evolution perspective influenced behavioural studies.. -- in order to get same **replicable** results **standardized** **protocal** were a good ideas. -- Standardized protocols helped so the **experiments** could be **replicated** and **reliable**. -- This led to the **development** of tests like the ***Open Field Test*** and ***Shuttle Box***, which were **designed** to **measure behaviors** like **anxiety** and **depression** in **animals**, -- **ensuring** **consistent results**.

Question 40

What role did the experiences of **World War I and II** play in **advancing psychological research** and the **use of animal models** to develop **treatments** for **depression** and **anxiety**?

Answer 40

World War I and II **highlighted** the need for **psychological treatments for soldiers**. -- Researchers **turned** to **animal models to study** and **develop** **solutions** for **mental health issues** like ***PTSD***, ***anxiety***, and ***depression***, which led to the **creation of drugs for treatment**.

Question 41

How did these animal studies lead to the creation of antidepressants like Iproniazid and Prozac?

Answer 41

**Animal studies**, like the ***Forced Swim Task*** and ***Tail Suspension Test***, helped researchers understand **depression** and test **potential drugs**. -- These studies led to the **development** of **antidepressants** like ***Iproniazid*** and ***Prozac***, which were **effective** in **treating depression** in both **animals** and **humans**.

Question 42

How did the **shift** toward **standardization** and **environment enrichment** in animal research **reflect** the **changing** **zeitgeist** in **psychology**, especially in terms of **improving experimental accuracy**, addressing **ecological concerns**, and **developing treatments** for **mental health** issues like **depression** and **anxiety** following **World Wars I and II**?

Answer 42

The shift toward **standardization** and **environment enrichment** in animal research reflected **psychology’s evolving focus** on more **accurate** and **ethical methods**. -- This **change** helped **make experiments more realistic** and **reliable**, -- while also **addressing ecological concerns**. -- The need to **treat mental health issues** after World Wars I and II led to **using animals in studies to develop effective treatments** for **depression** and **anxiety**, -- **influencing** the **creation** of **antidepressants** like ***Prozac***.

Question 43

What was the main reason why psychology took off?

Answer 43

1. After **WW2** many people were suffering from mental health problems like never before because this was the first time they were exposed to the nuclear weapons and more advanced weapons. The soldiers were exposed to bomb **explosion** every few minutes for 1 week or 2 week straight. -- this led to a lot of mental problem. -- therefore psychologists were the ones who through anials research like **suspension task** etc were able to come up with anidepressant like prozac. -- the discovery of **antidepressents** helped a lot -- and the **Americam govt. funded psychologists with a lot of money **and had **psychology** **major** **assigned** in the universities.

Question 44

What did the success of previous studies lead to?

Answer 44

**Developing behavioural tests** -- where **animal behaviour test** -- became a **staple** in **neuroscience** **research**.

Question 45

Give an example -- where **animal behaviour test** -- became a **staple** in **neuroscience** **research**.

Answer 45

1. **Forced Swim Task** 1. **Tail Suspession Test** 1. **Morris Water Maze** 1. **Elevated Plus Maze**

Question 46

What else were **Developing behavioural tests** -- **research** focused on besides mood disorder?

Answer 46

1. **Memory** 2. **Learning** OR you can just say 1. **Cognition** (as it includes memory and learning).

Question 47

Which tests were focused on Memory and Learning?

Answer 47

1. **Morris Water Maze** 2. **Barnes** **Maze** 3. **Object** **Placemnet** 4. **Object** **Recognition** The **Morris Water Maze** requires the **animal to swim to find a hidden platform in a pool of water,** while the ***Barnes Maze*** is a ***dry platform with multiple holes where the animal must find the one leading to an escape box***. a behavioral test used in neuroscience research to assess an **animal's spatial memory** by presenting them with **familiar objects in new locations** and **measuring how long they take to find displaced objects**, indicating whether they **recognize** the **object** **despite** its **new position**.

Question 48

Why are you showing me all of this?

Answer 48

Because we have been **exposed to this yet** and it is **integral** to **psychology**. Most we know about **brain** now is that it comes from the **research on animals**.

Question 49

* The challenges of balancing scientific objectivity with anthropomorphic tendencies.

Answer 49

1. **Cognitive Bias** & **Interpretation** 1. **Measurement** & **Operationalization Issues** 1. **Ethical Considerations** & **Welfare** 1. **Communication** & **Public Perception**

Question 50

Explain: **Cognitive Bias** & **Interpretation**.

Answer 50

 **Researchers** may **unconsciously** project **human-like emotions** onto **animals** or AI, **influencing data interpretation**.  Example: Assuming a dog's "**guilt**" based on **its body language, e.g., teay eyes** rather than actual **cognitive awareness of wrongdoing.**

Question 51

Explain: **Measurement** & **Operationalization Issues**.

Answer 51

 **Emotions** and **mental states** are difficult to **quantify** **objectively**.  Studies must use **clear**, **operational definitions that minimize subjective attributions.**

Question 52

Explain: **Ethical Considerations** & **Welfare**.

Answer 52

 **Anthropomorphism** can lead to **ethical concerns** in research (e.g., **animal rights debates**).  **Conversely**, avoiding it entirely **may downplay the complexity** of **non-human experiences**.

Question 53

Explain: **Communication** & **Public Perception**.

Answer 53

 Scientists **must** balance **precise language** with **public** **accessibility**.  **Over-anthropomorphizing** can lead to **misinformation** (e.g., **AI** being described as "**thinking**" or "**feeling**").