Class - 2 - Human Research - Modern Psychology Flashcards
What is Zeitgeist?
What were the following of particular historical period:
- What were the dominant values, – beliefs, –and attitudes?
- What were people concerned about
- What were their hopes – and –fears?
- What were the prevailing ideas about the mind, – the self, – and – human nature?
- Think of it as the collective consciousness of a historical period, influenced by major events, social trends, technological advancements, and philosophical currents.
Example of Zeitgist: The Emergence of Bimaristans in the Islamic Golden Age (8th-13th centuries CE)
Preceding events: The expansion of the Islamic empire, translation of ancient Greek texts, and a flourishing of scientific inquiry.
Zeitgeist: A focus on knowledge, reason, and compassion.
Connection to Psychology: Bimaristans, early hospitals with dedicated wards for mental illness, reflected a humane and progressive approach to mental health care. This was influenced by both Islamic teachings on compassion and the rediscovery of classical Greek medical knowledge. This period foreshadows modern psychiatric hospitals and the understanding of mental illness as something requiring medical treatment.
What are 3 different Eras of Psychology?
- Ancient (beginning of time: anything before ~1500)
- Modern (~1500 - ~1950)
- Contemporary (~1950 - now)
What is the time period of Ancient psychology era?
Beginning of time: anything before ~1500
What is the time period of Modern psychology era?
~1500 - ~1950
What is the time period of Contemporary psychology era?
~1950 - now
Is Ancient psychology era directly connected to psychology?
No, during this time they focused on general human factors.
Which things happened in ancient psychology era?
- Mesopotamia (3500 BCE)
- Gilgamesh
- Egypt (3000 BCE)
- Greece (600 BCE) and the Islamic Golden Age (980 CE)
-
The doctrine of potentiality
* Potentiality
* Actuality -
Ibn Sina
* Physical environment
* Diet and Lifestyle
* Social environment
* Sensory Inputs
* Remedial Measures
Who beat Frued to developing Theories of Dreams?
- Mesopotamians
- Babylonians
- Assyrians
What did
1. Mesopotamians
1. Babylonians
1. Assyrians
believe about dreams?
- They believed that Dreams came from Gods, meaning that were a way for Gods to communicate guidance, warnings, or insights to humans — AND—
- Dream interpretation was used – to provide clarity, – make decisions, –or address emotional and spiritual concerns.
Who was Gilgamesh?
Mesopotamian
What did Gilgamesh (the Mesopotamian) think of himself?
That he is 2/3 God , 1/3 man , had Godlike powers, and human vulnerability.
Who interpreted Gilgamesh’s dreams?
His mother
How did Gilgamesh’s mother interpret his dreams?
She used his dreams to predict if he was going to win the war:
- If he had a dream with stromy weather in dreams, she intrepreted it as he would loose war.
- if he dreamed about sun, his mother would interept it as winning war.
- A lot of nightmare before war = it could mean he was reluctant to go to the war.
How did Gilgamesh’s mother interpreted the following dream?
Gilgamesh and Enkidu are
climbing a mountain in an
earthquake
How did Gilgamesh’s mother interpreted the following dream?
Gilgamesh and Enkidu proceed on a mission to kill nemeses Humbaba, where Enkidu (Gilgamesh’s friend) dies.
Why did Gilgamesh’s mother interpret dreams as such?
Gilgamesh’s mother interpreted dreams because, in the Ancient Psychology era, – dreams were often seen as messages from divine beings or gods, – reflecting the era’s focus on general human factors – rather than – psychology in a scientific sense which did not exist during that time.
The Mesopotamians,– being among the earliest civilizations to develop Theories about dreams, – connected these interpretations to daily life events and challenges, – believing dreams carried symbolic meanings – that could guide decisions or predict outcomes.
What did Egyptians believe about the heart and afterlife?
The Egyptians, influenced by the zeitgeist (spirit of the times) that emphasized spirituality, moral order, and cosmic balance, Believed the heart (not the brain) – was the – source of mental processes – and – determined afterlife eligibility. –
Unlike modern views that emphasize the brain’s role, they thought the brain merely functioned to cool the blood, much like “air conditioning.” –
They also weighed the heart against a feather (symbolizing purity and truth). – A heavier heart indicated impurity, fear, and anxiety, leading to denial of entry into the afterlife. This belief reflected their cultural focus on living ethically to maintain harmony with cosmic principles.
Who were the first people
credited with developing
Psychological Systems.
Aristotle and Plato, and Ibn Sina.
Who was the teacher of Plato? was
– Greece (600 BCE) and Islamic
Golden Age (980 CE)
Socrates
Who was the teacher of Aristotle?
– Greece (600 BCE) and Islamic
Golden Age (980 CE)
Plato
Which form did Socrates, Plato and Aristitle believe was the highest form of Human Intellect?
– Greece (600 BCE) and Islamic
Golden Age (980 CE)
Math
Which Theory did Socrates, Plato and Aristitle come up with?
Golden Age (980 CE)
– Greece (600 BCE) and Islamic
Theory of Forms
What did Theory of Form highlight?
– Greece (600 BCE) and Islamic
Golden Age (980 CE)
Importance of learning,
and acquiring knowledge.
What did “Socrates, Plato and Aristitle” –Greece (600 BCE) and Islamic
Golden Age (980 CE) – believe about KNOWLEDGE and OPINION.
That they are – two different things.
What did Aristotle do and study?
- Examined and created – intricate data collection of human behaviour, emotions and cognitive processes.
- He created a textbook in which he classified different plants, animals, and humans. He thought vegetation was
lowest form of life, – animal were middle – and – humans the top form of life. – He believed ant is lower form of life than horse, – new/small plant is
lower form of life than old/big plant, – not smart people are lower
form of life than smart people. - He studied Inductive Reasoning.
What is Inductive Reasoning (Aristotle studies it.)
Golden Age (980 CE
– Greece (600 BCE) and Islamic
Making generalization from observations.
Which is the first collection of psychological data, and maybe the first “psychology” textbook and who wrote it?
De Anima , Aristotle wrote it.
What did Aristotle write in De Anima (first psychology book)?
Classification and taxonomy
- categorizing plants, animals and humans.
What did Aristotle recognize about animals?
That they – functioned
like – humans – but not completely.
How did Aristotle believe about how would one understand human mind?
By studying – the physical
world – and –humanity.
What did The doctrine of potentiality consists of?
Potentiality and Actuality
Who studied what The doctrine of potentiality consists of?
Aristotle
What did Potentiality mean according to Aristotle?
A seed has – the potentiality to become a mature tree, – given the right conditions.
one can achieve their highest potential given right conditions.
What did Actuality mean according to Aristotle?
When seed grows into a mature tree, – it has actualized its potentiality.
– Aristotle believed that Human beings have the
potentiality to develop virtuous qualities and reach their highest potential through ethical living.
What did Aristotle believe about Potentiality and Actuality?
That they are
interrelated and inseparable.
What is Potentiality and Actuality?
Potentiality is the “what
could be,” – and – Actuality is
the “what is.”
Who stidied Plato’s and Aristotle’s work?
Ibn Sina
Why did Ibn sina heavily studied
Plato’s and Aristotle’s work?
To advance –
ancient psychology – for the
Islamic Golden Age.
How did Ibn sina construct the soul?
Identical to Aristotle:
Vegetative > Animal > Rational
What did Ibn Sina say about Perception?
Perception – occurs through senses, – which is processed by “the common sense”.
Ibn Sina went further than Aristotle’s work and described aspect of humans. Give details.
- Ibn sena acknowledged that humans have 5 senes and also common sense. E.g., he said we hear, it reaches ear,, it gets processed, then we say/act based on common sense.
- Believed that humans have a level of consiousness.
- Discovered the mind.
- Looked at diseases and medicines.
Which book recognized that Psychological factors play a role in physical diseases?
The Canon of Medicine
According to Ibn Sina’s book The Canon of Medicine book - WHY do mental health problems arise?
Due to – Imbalances of the humors:
- Blood
- Yellow bile
- Black bile
- Phlegm.
According to Ibn Sina based on his book ‘The Cannon of Medicine,’ what Diseases occur if there is Imbalace of Humors?
- Blood: High blood pressure, inflammation, and hemorrhage.
- Yellow bile: Gallbladder disorders, ulcers, and heat-related illnesses.
- Black bile: Depression, chronic gastrointestinal disorders.
- Phlegm: Asthma, bronchitis, sinusitis.
What did Ibn sina believe what could Relieve
Emotional Distress and help cure Mental Illness?
Music therapy
According to Ibn Sina what could treat mental illness?
Understaing person physically and spiritually.
Who was one of the first person to propose psychosocial factors as a contributor to mental health? . Looked at environment, lifestyle and diet on well-being.
Ibn Sina
By looking at WHAT did Ibn Sina propose Psychosocial Factors as a contributor to Mental Health?
By looking at:
1. Physical environment
2. Lifestyle – and – Diet – on well-being
3. Social environment (sensory inputs + remedial measures).
According to Ibn Sina what could Physical environmnet affect?
Both the
body and mind.
According to Ibn Sina what could Lifestyle and diet affect?
- Could directly impact
mental health. - He looked at what ACTIONABLE things can we do to allow people to get better.
According to Ibn Sina what other role did he discover that could impact mental health?
Social environment
According to Ibn Sina what did Social environment consist of?
- Sensory inputs.
- Remedial measures.
According to Ibn sina what could a person do to avoid mental health issues in case of Sensory Inputs?
Should not to exposed to
stimuli that results is humans having mental health issues.
According to Ibn sina what does remedial measure mean/imply?
What remedies can we do to get better mentally.
Modern
Experimental Psychology – FROM HERE
Who is debatably the father of Experimental Psychology?
Weber-Fechner
What did Weber-Fechner collaborate?
Psychology and Physics.
What was Weber-Fechner most important contribution?
Weber-Fechner Law
What is Weber-Fechner Law?
The just-noticeable difference – between two stimuli
Give an example of Weber-Fechner Law?
What is the Log of stimulus magnitude related to?
Its Perception
Which experiment did Weber-Fechner conduct?
Fechner’s Day Experiment
What is Fechner’s Day Experiment?
Friends and family – examined stars – at different background light levels. —- Observed greater differences – in the same stars when sky was darker.
Give another example of Fechner’s Day Experiment.
I cant see UV rays in this room but my cat can. – Psychology see’s how people react to different factors.
Which law was the intro to Psychophysics?
Weber-Fechner Law
Which theory did Weber-Fechner introduce?
Signal Detection theory
What is Signal Detection theory?
Methods to measure senses and perception.
– Basically Type I error and Type II error.
Memorize this example: smoke detector
What is Type I error and Type II error?
- Type I: False alarm (detecting something/fire that isn’t there).
- Type II: Miss (failing to detect something/fire that is there).
Give an example of Signal Detection theory / Type I error and Type II error. - talk about zeitgist.
Smoke detector = it makes sound when fire = hit, if makes sounds when fire absent then false alarm, if n=does not make sound when fire happens then ‘miss’, if does not makes sound when fire absent then correct rejection. — understaing that brain has more fixed pattern that look at the world that we would need to attribute to humans. — it allowed us to look from this perspective. idenfying humans in this way looked at neuroscience perspective.
Type I error , Type II error opened gate to what/led to what new things further?
G. Stanley Hall work
What did G. Stanley Hall work on?
- Established the first American psychology
research laboratory. - Trained John B. Watson!
- Became the president of the APA in 1892, as well
as one of the founding members. - Is considered one of the founding fathers of developmental psychology.
- Came up with theories on “normative psychology” - developmental patterns and milestones AND “Storm and stress” - theories on the stressful transformative years of adolescence.
- Postulated theories on evolution and the
influence of biology. –Unfortunately, the upcoming psychologists completely resented this. - He was also a proponent of applied psychological theories, showing that it’s not all
about clinical psychology.
Who established the First American Psychology Research Laboratory?
G. Stanley Hall
Who did G. Stanley Hall train?
John B. Watson
Who is considered one of the founding fathers of Developmental Psychology?
G. Stanley Hall
What theories did G. Stanley Hall introduce?
- Theories on “normative psychology” – developmental patterns and milestones.
- “Storm and stress” - theories on the stressful transformative years of adolescence.
Which theories did G. Stanley Hall postulate/propose?
Theories on – evolution – and the – influence of biology.
Unfortunately, what did the upcoming psychologists completely resent?
Postulated/proposed – Theories on – Evolution – and the – Influence of Biology by G. Stanley Hall.
Who proposed Applied Psychological Theories and WHY?
G. Stanley Hall because he showed that it’s not all about clinical psychology.
Modern Psychology from here on –
–
What happened in Modern Psychology Era?
- Focus on experimental modern psychology by G.Stanley Hall and neuroscience perspectives.
- Psychophysics: Understanding thresholds in sensory perception (e.g., noticing hair growth over months).
-
Evolutionary Psychology:
Applying evolution to human biology and behavior. -
4 main schools of thought:
* Structuralism
* Functionalism
* Behaviourism
* Cognition
What are the 4 main schools
of thought or 4 stepping stones of psychology or 4 models of psychology?
- Structuralism
- Functionalism
- Behaviourism
- Cognition
What was the focus of Structuralism?
Analyze conscious experience – into basic elements – to make mental processes observable.
In simple terms, it’s about looking at thoughts and feelings step by step to better understand how the mind works.
Who are the 2 people that contributed to Structuralism?
- Wilhelm Wundt
- Edward Titchener
Who was Wilhelm Wundt’s student?
Edward Titchener
What was the focus of Functionalism?
Study the function – and –purpose of mental processes and behaviour.
Who are the 2 people that contributed to Functionalism?
- William James
- Thorndike
What was the focus of Behaviourism?
Rejected the Structuralism and Functionalism – focused ONLY – on observable behaviours.
Who are the 3 people that contributed to Behaviourism?
- Albert Bandura
- B.F. Skinner
- John B. Watson
Watson said: give me xx students i will turm them into engineer etc. – 1 of his student commited suicide.
What was the focus of Cognition?
Emphasized empirical research – for both mental processes – and – behaviours.
Who are the 2 people that contributed to Cognition?
- Elizabeth Loftus
- Steven Pinker
What is Structuralism concerned with?
Analyzing/understanding conscious experiences – into basic elements – to make mental processes observable.
Structuralism is concerned with
understanding conscious experiences
experiences. What does this includes?
P E T S:
- Sensations
- Perceptions
- Emotions
- Thoughts
Structuralism is concerned with understanding conscious experiences, which includes: sensations,
perceptions, emotions, and thoughts. How can these 4 be examined?
Via Introspection primarily, – but
also through instruments. – Like those that measure reaction time
What was the overarching idea of Structuralism?
That the mind could be broken down into basic elements.
What was Structioralism overtaken by?
Functionalism
see picture
–
Structuralism: what would people report?
How a stimulus would make them think or feel.
Structuralism: They would report how a stimulus would make people Think or Feel. Give example.
What did Wilhelm Wundt attempt to
study?
Reaction time: the time – it took – to – think and make decisions.
Give an example of Reaction time.
Who was larger
proponent/supported of structuralism
compared to Wundt?
Edward Titchener (Wundt’s student).
Who played more role in
establishing psychological as
empirical: Wilhelm Wundt or edward Titchner?
Wilhelm Wundt
How would/did Edward Titchner study?
He would be test people – on their ability to – perceive words or physical objects.
Give an example of How would/did Edward Titchner study.
Functionalism: What was William James’ philosophies concerned with?
WHY a behavior exists
in the first place. – Rather than “What
is the mind”?
Did Functionalism lean more on Nature or Nurture?
Nurture
Functionalism: what did the focus shift to?
Shifted focus to the – purpose of mental processes – in adapting to the environment/nurture.
Shifted focus to the – understanding – the – purpose of behavior and mental processes.
What does Fuctionalism suggest?
It suggests – we infer feelings based on actions.
Give example: It suggests – we infer feelings based on actions.
What is Functionalism most famous for?
Stream of Consciousness
What does “Stream of consciousness” suggests?
Thoughts and Feelings – don’t exist in isolation, – they are interconnected.
How does functionalism differ from structuralism?
Structuralism = Focuses on individual thoughts and feelings.
Functionalism = Emphasizes behavior and practical applications.
Who looked at Nature vs. Nurture?
Francis Galton
What did Francis Galton propose as a means to understand nature and nurture?
Proposed looking at twin
studies.
What was Francis Galton highly influenced by?
Evolution/nature
Nature vs. Nurture: govt. involvemnt example.
What was Francis Galton’s belief about eugenics?
He proposed creating a “superior” race through selective breeding, – later discredited for being scientifically invalid.
What did Hereditary Genius suggest?
That there was – a genetic component to – “high achievers”.
Which lab did francis galton develop?
Anthropometric lab
What did Anthropometric lab collect?
Tons of data – on physical and psychological human traits (psychometrics).
Which concepts did Francis Galton develop?
- Correlation
- Regression analysis
What did Francis Galton contribute to?
Standard Deviation Proofs
Edward Thorndike and t h e
Law of effect – from here on–
What is the “Law of Effect”?
Behaviors followed by positive consequences are repeated; – those followed by negative consequences are not.
Who introduced the Law of effect?
Edward Thorndike (Functionalism).
What happens to the Behaviours that are followed by Positive consequences?
Strengthened
What happens to the Behaviours that are followed by Negative consequences?
Weakened
What is law of effect?
Behaviourism - the psychology
philosophy that was, and then wasn’t – from here on –
Why did Behaviourism take over Functionalism?
Because of it research methodolgy – instead of its ideas.
In which century did Behaviourism emerge?
20th century
What does Behaviourism posits/states?
All behaviour is learned through
the environment/nurture. – Namely, through conditioning.
What is an extremely popular school of thought and influential division of psychology that still persists/exists today?
Behaviourism
Is Behaviourism inherently wrong?
No, but it has considerable criticism regarding its scope.
What do Behaviourists think?
Everyone is
essentially a robot – operating on commands.
Behaviourism interjections…. see picture.. Pavlov
How did previous behaviorists, particularly Thorndike, influence Skinner and Bandura?
Previous behaviorists laid the groundwork for Skinner and Bandura, – especially through Thorndike’s Law of Effect. —- This law stated that behaviors have consequences, – which can be either positive or negative, – helping shape future behavior.
What was Skinner’s contribution to Behaviorism?
Skinner’s work was more comprehensive, showed operant conditioning in humans. – He used reinforcement scheduling and operant conditioning boxes (Skinner boxes) to study behavior and its responses to reinforcement.
Contemporary Experimental
Psychology. from here on—
–from here on—-
Which is the 4th Predominant school of thought?
Cognitive Revolution
There was a Paradigm shift away from
behaviourism, but a massive one. All of a
sudden who were everyone?
Cognitive psychologist
What did Cognitive psychology reintroduce?
The study of:
- Mental processes
- Memory
- Perception
- Problem solving
The advent of neuroscience
and computer technology allowed cognition to
flourish in what regards?
- EEG
- fmRl
- Eye tracking
What does Alison Gopnik (developmental psychologist) study/focus on?
Focuses strongly on how children
learn, – understand – and –perceive – the world.
Which Theory did Alison Gopnik introduce?
Theory of Mind
Alison Gopnik introduced Theory of Mind: what does it means for children?
How children – understand the mental states – of other people.
Causal learning and exploring by children.
How do children learn to play, – and how do they play with others?
Can Children manipulate variables in their
environment to discover how they work?
Yes
What type of parenting fosters children’s curiosity and exploration?
Supportive and responsive parenting
Who famously likens children’s thinking to that of scientists and authored “The Scientist in the Crib” and “The Philosophical Baby”?
Alison Gopnik
Who is Steven Pinker?
Cognitive Psychologist
What did Steven Pinker study/researched?
- Psycholinguistics
- Cognition
- Evolutionary psychology
- Language acquisition
- Grammar
What did Steven Pinker say about Childrens innate ability to develop language.
Cross-culturally, language acquisition?
That children HAVE an innate ability to develop language –and that – Cross-culturally, language acquisition is the SAME.
What did Steven Pinker say about the Linguistic Structer of Language?
Languages vary on vocabulary and specific grammar rules, – but the structure is the same.
According to Steven Pinker what are Language features constrained by and not constrained by?
Human cognition, – not arbitrary rules.
What is the Visual perception influenced by in Cognitive processing?
Cognitive bias
What is the Decision making influenced by between objects?
Categories – and – causal relationships
see image
–xx–
Who has appeared on several podcasts and is considered celebrity scientist?
Steven Pinker
Who is Daniel Kahneman?
Behavioral economics
What is Daniel Kahneman best know for?
Writing “Thinking Fast, and
Slow”.
Which Theory did daniel Kahneman introduce?
Prospect Theory
What is Prospect Theory by Daniel kahneman?
People’s choices are based often
emotion than rationality.
Give an example of that: People’s choices are based often emotion than rationality.
Winning the lottery: Emphasizing losses over gains.
What is thinking Fast and Slow aka?
System 1 and System 2 thinking
What is System 1 and System 2 thinking?
System 1: Fast, intuitive, and automatic thinking.
System 2: Slow, rational, and deliberate thinking.
Give an example of What is System 1 and System 2 thinking.
What is Anchoring bias?
People are over-reliant – on the first piece of information – they
hear.
Give an example of Anchoring bias.
In a salary negotiation, – whoever makes the first offer – establishes a range of reasonable possibilities - in each person’s mind.
What is Availability heuristic?
People overestimate – the importance of information – that is available to them.
Give an example of Availability heuristic.
A person might argue that smoking is NOT
unhealthy – because they know
someone who lived to 100 and
smoked three packs a day.
What is Bandwagon effect?
The probability – of one person adopting a belief – increases – based on # of people who hold that belief.
What is Bandwagon effect a powerful form of?
Groupthink
What is Blind-spot bias?
Failing to recognize – your own cognitive bias – is a bias in itself.
Blind-spot bias: Do people notice cognitive
and motivational biases much
more in others than in
themselves?
Yes
What is Choice-supportive bias?
When you choose something, – you tend to feel positive, – even if that choice has flaws.
Give an example of What is Choice-supportive bias?
Like how you think your dog is
awesome - even if it bites
people every once in a while.
What is Clustering illusion?
This is the tendency to – see
patterns – in random events.
Give an example of clustering illusion?
Gambling fallacies, –like the idea that red is more or less likely to turn up
– on a roulette table after a string
of reds.
What is Confirmation bias?
We tend to listen only to
information – that confirms our
preconceptions.
Give an example of Confirmation Bias.
What is Conservatism bias?
Where people – favor prior evidence – over new evidence – and are slow to accept the new evidence.
Give an example of What is Conservatism bias.
Prior evidence = earth was flat
New evidence = earth is round.
People were slow to accept that earth is round.
Who is Elizabeth Loftus?
Cognitive/forensic psychologist
What Elizabeth Loftus best known for?
Eyewitness testimony
According to Elizabeth loftus when does problem arises during Eyewitness Testimony?
When police/etc “Lead the witness”
Give an example of leading the witness.
Police use suggestion, leading
questions, or provide false
information.
Can people easily misremember?
Yes
Is memory fillable?
Yes
Is the Implantation of false memories possible?
Yes
Give an example of Implantation of false memories.
Imagine a time you got sick from
eating peach yogurt.
Implantation of false memories: Give an example of Source monitoring.
“What colour was his jacket”, police officer has green jacket hanging on the door.
Who is named one of the world’s 100 most influential psychologists?
Elizabeth Loftus
What were the books that Elizabeth Loftus wrote?
- Eyewitness Testimony
- The myth of repressed memory
What was Zeitgeist of the Cognitive Psychology Era: Dominant Values, Beliefs, and Attitudes?
- Emphasis on scientific understanding of mental processes.
- Belief in the mind as an information-processing system, similar to a computer.
- Focus on internal mental states rather than just observable behavior.
What was Zeitgeist of the Cognitive Psychology Era: Concerns?
- How humans perceive, process, store, and retrieve information.
- Understanding memory, mental process, perceptoin, problem-solving, decision-making, and language acquisition.
What was Zeitgeist of the Cognitive Psychology Era: Hopes and Fears?
Hope: To improve education, artificial intelligence, and human-computer interactions through cognitive insights.
Fear: Misuse of cognitive research in areas like manipulative advertising or AI control.
What was Zeitgeist of the Cognitive Psychology Era: Prevailing Ideas about Mind, Self, and Human Nature?
- The mind is an active processor of information rather than a passive receiver.
- Human nature is shaped by cognitive structures that guide behavior and adaptation.
