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SIXTIES AMERICA AND ITS AFTERMATH > Civil Rights > Flashcards

Civil Rights Flashcards

1
Q

Factors leading up to equal rights: migration of African Americans from South to North

A
  • Decline of cotton pickers in favour of industrial/labouring jobs in the North. War economy significant (argues I+K)
  • 1940-60, 4.5 M Black men migrate

This led to an increase in skilled professions

NAACP increase membership by 1000% percent!

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2
Q

Precursors to modern civil rights movement

A
  • July 1944, Jackie Robinson bus protest
  • A Philip Randolf, who would later become significant, calls for marches on Washington in 1941
  • But movement was ‘small and fragile’ pre-war
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3
Q

Feelings of Black separateness before the Civil Rights movement

A

African American ‘ever feels his two-ness- an American, a Negro; two souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled strivings….’

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4
Q

Brown VS Board of Education, 1950

A

T. Marshall + NAACP vs BoE
- Wanted education for blacks, and de-segregation by extension

Supreme Court Rule UNANIMOUSLY in their favour May 17th, 1954

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5
Q

Harry Truman orders de-segregation of Armed forces in…

A

1948

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6
Q

To what degree had civil rights advanced the cause of equality by mid-century?

A

-Some improvements (desegregation in Army, Schools)

But overall still inequality

  • Median income 55% of Whites
  • Much not yet achieved
  • Heavy losses (eg loss of jobs for black teachers, proportion of black Americans earning living wage declined)
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7
Q

Examples of segregation law

A
  • Segregated jobs, churches, schools, restaurants, toilets
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8
Q

Economic disadvantages to blacks pre- de-segregation

A
  • Rural schools only open to Blacks in winter
  • Lack of living wages
  • Segregated housing a huge inconvenience
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9
Q

Vote corruption in the South

A
  • in Alabama, registrars able to deny votes if they didn’t understand constitution.
  • Stupid questions like ‘How many bubles in a bar of soap’?
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10
Q

Educated blacks in segregated colleges

A
  • Tuskegee institute, Alabama

- Morehouse College, Atlanta

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11
Q

The church as a force for social cohesion

A
  • ‘The most durable force in shaping the Black Community was the church’ - I+K
  • Sponsored black businesses, newspapers
  • Religious motivations: persecution of the righteous

‘Put on the whole armour of God, that ye may be able to stand against the wiles of the Devil.’

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12
Q

Rosa Parks bus boycott

A

DECEMBER 1st 1955

BACKGROUND: Segregated busses

  • Blacks majority of users but not allowed to drive them and had to give up seats for whites
  • Had to pay at front, exit, and get on again at back
  • December 1st 1955, NAACP activist, refuses to give up her seat on a bus in Alabama
  • Arrest –> leader of local Women’s Political Council writes pamphlet calling for boycott and prints 50 000 copies
  • E. D. Nixon, local NAACP leader, bails Parks and assists

Why parks?
- Ideal symbol of injustice: intelligent and educated, but no work and treated badly

MLK

  • Preachers endorse boycott on Dec 5th
  • MLK calls it ‘protest with love’

the Boycott

  • Organised carpools or walked around
  • Sustained effort lasting until November of 1956

Result
- Mid-November, supreme court rules bus segregation unconstitutional
-

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13
Q

Martin Luther King, Jr. (MLK)

A

Background
father a prominent preacher in Atlanta

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14
Q

Southern Christian Leadership Conference

SCLC

A

Founded 1957

To coordinate black churches

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15
Q

Woolworths Lunch Counter Boycott in Greensboro, N. Carolina

A

February 1st 1960

  • Ezell Blair, Jr., Franklin McCain, Joseph McNeil, David Richmond, sit at lunch counter and refused service
  • Come back for next two days until they can occupy every seat
  • ** By April, 54sit-ins in 9 states **
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16
Q

Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee

A

ORIGINS
Formed in April, 1960 following conference of 200 young activists in Raleigh, N. Carolina

  • James Lawson critical of NAACP which served only black elites
  • Ella Baker NAACP vet who was critical of ministers like King
METHODS 
Now, movement was widespread and decisively non violent 
- Challenge segregation
- Get blacks educated
- Get voting rights
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17
Q

Freedom Ride, Spring 1961

A

May 1961

  • Board interstate bus in Washington DC and seek to use all facilities at bus terminals to see if they had been de-segregated
  • Hoped to create crisis requiring federal intervention
  • Violence in Montgomery and Aliston, Alabama, Rock Hill, South Carolina
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18
Q

Why was Mississippi specifically a target for the Civil Rights movement, and how did the movement initially proceed there?

A

Terrible inequality

  • Only 5% of blacks high school graduates
  • Only 5% registered to vote
  • In 1950, 5 black lawyers in the state

Mississippians have history of racism and violence
- Emmett Till murdered in 1955, acquitted by all white jury. Defence attorney: ‘I am sure that every last Anglo Saxon one of you will have the courage to free these men.’

Progress

  • Individuals:
  • Bob Moses, moved there in 1961
  • Fannie Lou Hammer, lay preacher, spoke out against segregation: ‘God is not pleased with all the murdering and the brutality…’
  • Organisations
  • Churches were venues for organising, SNCC siginificant in persuading people to vote

Effectiveness?

  • Did mobilise locals
  • Important first steps

BUT

  • Encountered fierce opposition
  • Violence: member of SNCC assassinated, Hammer beaten in jail
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19
Q

To what degree did migration North offer new opportunities for Black Americans

A
  • Free to vote and run for office
  • Fewer segregated spaces
  • Freedom from oppressive customs of the South eg not being able to look a white in the eye
  • Higher wages for some
  • Support from liberal elites: W. Reuther, head of United Auto Workers, had large black membership

BUT

  • No longer massive employment of low wage, low skilled workers in manufacturing
  • Where there was, little or no hope of advancement
  • New factories built in suburbs, far from blacks
  • Segregated housing still a significant problem, even when illegal
  • Many confined - though not legally - to ghetto housing
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20
Q

Harlem mothers vs Board of Education, NY, in late 1950s

A
  • Nine mothers sue board of education for providing poor schooling to their children
  • two win cases, judge blaming ‘institutional racism’
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21
Q

What did Kennedy believe about Civil Rights in 1963?

A
  • Sympathetic towards voter registration campaigns
    HOWEVER
  • Aware of how contentious the issue was, so preferred to see the Civil Rights movement as a minor issue and didn’t want to risk bringing it before Congress
    (Evidence)
  • Not mentioned in State of the Union Address
  • In national poll, 4% thought race biggest problem
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22
Q

Birmingham, Alamaba, and George Wallace

A
  • Largest city in Alabama
  • 40% of population black
  • George C. Wallace is governor: ‘In the name of the greatest people that have ever trod this earth, I draw the line in the dust and toss the gauntlet before the feet of tyranny. And I say, segregation now! Segregation tomorrow! Segregation forever!
  • Eugene ‘Bull’ Connor, Commissioner on public safety
  • 1947-63, 50+ explosions targeting African Americans
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23
Q

Why was Bull Connor, of Birmingham, Alabama, the ideal target for the Civil Rights Movement, according to Wyatt Walker (SCLC, adviser to MLK)

A

“[Connor] was the perfect adversary. He believed that he would be the state’s most popular politician if he treated the black violently, bloodily, and sternly. We knew that the psyche of the white redneck was such that he would inevitably do something to help our cause.”

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24
Q

Targeting Birmingham: Project C.

A
  • Devised by SCLC
  • Desegregation of areas
  • Desegregation of jobs to allow blacks to earn real wages
  • Sit ins, boycotts and eventually mass-marches

Hoped to attract national attention and make relationship between Connor and city’s business elites difficult

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25
Q

Project C in its early stages - What wasn’t working, and how did the SCLC respond?

A
  • Bull connor defeated in race for mayor, diminishing the drive of the movement a little
  • Boycott not participated in by all
  • Police do not violently engage with blacks in early marches, making it difficult to highlight injustice

SOLUTION?
–> Mobilise schoolchildren
May 2nd, 1963, 1000s of children march down 16th street
When march is repeated the next day, Connor authorises force: K9 units, firehoses –> BROADCAST ON TV

Impact?

  • ‘After [May 3rd] (Schoolchildren march down 16th Street in Birmingham), it was inevitable that President Kennedy would propose and that Congress would pass a major civil rights bill.’
  • Mobilised poorer blacks who had so far been less involved
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26
Q

Example of retaliation against SCLC action in Birmingham

  • Sixteenth Baptist Church bombing
  • Wallace blocking the door…
A

Sixteenth Baptist Church bombing, 15th Sep 1963
- KKK bomb church, four black girls killed

George Wallace, June 11th 1963
- ‘There can be no submission to the theory that the central government is anything but the servant of the people… [I] do hereby denounce and forbid this illegal and unwarranted action’

27
Q

PRIMARY SOURCE: Report to the American People on Civil Rights, June 11th 1963

A

Report to the American People on Civil Rights, June 11th 1963

Advocates desegregation and voting rights

‘It ought to be possible, in short, for every American to enjoy the privileges of being American without regard to his race or his color.’

  • ‘We preach freedom around the world, and we mean it, But are we to say to the world - and much more importantly, to each other, - that this is the land of the free, except for Negroes’

Commits to Civil Rights Legislation:

I am, therefore, asking the Congress to enact legislation giving all Americans the right to be served in facilities which are open to the public–hotels, restaurants, theatres, retail stores, and similar establishments.

I am also asking the Congress to authorize the Federal Government to participate more fully in lawsuits designed to end segregation in public education.

28
Q

Covert operations against MLK

A

Under the banner of COINTELPRO

  • Hoover (FBI chief) provides derogatory reports
  • Wire taps on advisors and then MLK, authorised by Kennedy
  • MLK sex audiotape mailed to his house, watched by his wife, accompanied by anon. letter to suggest it was from an MLK supporter
29
Q

Detroit March following shooting of Medgar Evans (NAACP)

Great March to Freedom

A

June 11th, 1963

  • 200 000
  • MLK’s I Have a Dream speech
30
Q

August 1963 March

A

March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom
Attended by 250 000
Suggests more than simply de-segregation, needed to be rise in living standards, too?

31
Q

How did Lyndon B Johnson (LBJ) engage with the Civil Right’s Movement following JFK’s assassination?

A

Southerner, so had to reassure that he wouldn’t backtrack on JFK’s work

Had good record on Civil Rights as senator

‘[there was] no memorial or eulogy [that] could more eloquently honor President Kennedy’s memory than the earliest possible passage of the civil rights bill for which he fought.’

DID pass the Civil Rights Act 1964

Despite calling on end to voting obstacles for blacks in State of the Union Address, 1965, he feared that pushing for Voting Rights Act would compromise Great Society legislation

32
Q

How did the Civil Rights Movement influence other social movements of the 60s?

A

Main points:

1) Growth of size of social advocacy groups, previously unconcerned with size of their membership
2) adoption of activist tactics
3) Encourages people from lower/marginalised social classes to champion their rights (separate flashcard for women)

1)
- American Civil Liberties Union had 52 000 members in 1960; Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy had only 25 000

  • ACLU had 80 000 members by 1965

2)
- Sierra Club, environmental advocacy group, releases ‘Sierra Club Handbook for Environmental Activists’
- Jack Newfield, journalist, 1966: ‘one word, above all others, has the magic to inspire blind loyalty and epic myth. SNCC.’

3)
- United Farm Workers operation in the San Joaquin Valley in California to fight for real wages, proper working conditions. Led by Ceasar Chavez
- Organise marches
- Strike against Grape Growers in the San Joaquin Valley

Historiography:

‘But that would soon change, largely as a result of the influence of the civil rights movement, with its emphasis on local organising and direct action. In the early 1960s, civil rights support activities gave larger numbers of northern white liberals a crash course in the dynamics of mass organisation.’

new embrace of ‘activist style and strategy’

— I+K

33
Q

Relationship between Civil Rights Movements

A
  • Second Wave feminism

ISSUES

  • equal pay
  • equal responsibilities, esp. with child rearing
  • end to domestic violence and sexual harassment
  • break the ‘glass ceiling’

ADVOCATES
- Key individuals like Betty Friedan, who publishes ‘The Feminist Mystique’

However,
- Many still had contempt for Feminists, and many viewed them as extreme (evidence needed…)

34
Q

PRIMARY SOURCE: Betty Friedman in ‘The Feminist Mystique’ compared to Martin Luther King’s ‘I Have a Dream’

A

Friedman (Good Housekeeping):

‘Who knows of the possibilities of love when men and women share not only children, home and garden, not only their biological roles, but the responsibilities and passions of the work that creates the human future and the full human knowledge of who they are’

‘Who knows what sons and daughters will become, when their mothers’ fulfilment makes girls so sure they want to be feminine’

MLK

– one day right there in Alabama little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls as sisters and brothers.

I have a dream today!

35
Q

The Selma March, March 7th 1965

A
  • March 7th 1965, 600 assemble at Selma Brown Chapel African Methodist-Episcopal Church
  • Intend to protest against voting denial and racist violence

THE MARCH

  • March sets out, led by SNCC and SCLC officials, to Edmund’s Petty Bridge
  • Intend to march to Montgomery, the state capitol, but are blocked by Jim Clarke (Dallas County sheriff)

VIOLENCE

  • Marchers refuse to disperse, sheriff orders troops forwards
  • Ensuing chaos captured by news reporters
  • Many assaulted, trampled, forced off bridge,
  • Many hospitalised
36
Q

Voting denial in Alabama, and, specifically, Dallas County.

Selma Context - why was selma picked?

A

> 1/5 registered in Alabama

300/15000 registered in Dallas County

37
Q

How advanced was the struggle for VOTING rights on the eve of Selma, March 1965?

A

Not very.

No immediate plan from Johnson, who didn’t want to compromise other Great Society legislation by pushing a contentious bill through Congress

Constitutional Amendment, requiring 2/3rds majority in states and houses of congress, might take years to achieve and seemed the only means to achieve voting rights at that time.

Civil Rights leaders needed LBJ to defeat Goldwater in the Nov 94 election, so were not planning significant demonstrations in 1964 that might make him look weak.

HOWEVER

  • After election, Civil Rights leaders resumed their efforts to achieve voting rights
38
Q

Early attempts by SNCC to register voters

A
  • had been previous demonstrations in Selma to attempt to register black voters, but had not attracted widespread attention
39
Q

Selma Context - why was selma the target of demonstrations?

A

Selma:

1) Easy to get media attention

  • Jim Clark racist and ‘short tempered’ - I+K
    –> Made him a good target
    ‘But if nonviolent persuasion was a lost cause in Selma, nonviolent provocation had real potential for a movement heavily dependent on media coverage to get its message out to a wider audience’ - I+K

2) Represented the freedom struggle

  • 300/15000 registered in Dallas County
    • MLK: Selma ‘a symbol of bitter-end resistance to the Civil Rights Movement in the Deep South
40
Q

Selma: Key Dates

A
  • Jan 2nd, Brown Chapel Rally
  • Jan 18th, march to Brown County Courthouse
  • Jan 19th, march to Brown County Courthouse, round two.
  • Feb 18th, violence in Lowndes County
  • March 7th, bloody Sunday
  • March 9th, Second March
  • March 13th, LBJ meets with Wallace
  • March 15th, LBJ addresses nation
41
Q

Selma, incident at the Brown County Courthouse

A
  • Jan 19th, for the second time, march to Brown County Courthouse
  • 50 attempt to register
  • Sheriff Clarke arrests one violently in front of press
42
Q

Violence in Lowndes County, February 18th

A

Jimmie Lee Jackson killed by state trooper after shielding mother at a rally
–> SCLC decides to upscale their campaigns by marching to SELMA

43
Q

Second Selma march, March 9th 1965, and the murder of James Reed

A
  • King leads march but turns it around at Edmunds Petty Bridge, to avoid violating federal order
  • James Reeb, Unitarian minister, beaten by four whites, clubbed to death after eating at a local black restaurant on the evening of the 9th
  • –> Marches in Northern Cities and outside White House
44
Q

How did LBJ respond to the developing situation in Selma, and control George Wallace?

A
  • Proved to be flexible. Until Selma he had not planned to pursue voting rights legislation. Responded well to the crisis by drafting legislation so quicklu
  • Did not impose legislation on wallace. Waited until crisis would make Wallace concede without Johnson forcing him
  • Federalises National Guard when it became apparent that it was necessary for public protection, not as a show of excessive federal force - clever!

13th March, 1965

  • Meets him on 13th March. Given ‘Johnson Treatment’
  • Wallace to aide: ‘Hell, if I’d stayed in there much longer, he would’ve had me coming out for civil rights.’
45
Q

PRIMARY SOURCE: LBJ addresses nation, March 1965

A
  • There is no Negro problem. There is no Southern problem. There is no Northern problem. There is only an American problem. And we are met here tonight as Americans—not as Democrats or Republicans–we are met here as Americans to solve that problem.
  • Many of the issues of civil rights are very complex and most difficult. But about this there can and should be no argument. Every American citizen must have an equal right to vote. There is no reason which can excuse the denial of that right. There is no duty which weighs more heavily on us than the duty we have to ensure that right.

The last time a President sent a civil rights bill to the Congress it contained a provision to protect voting rights in federal elections. That civil rights bill was passed after eight long months of debate. And when that bill came to my desk from the Congress for my signature, the heart of the voting provision had been eliminated.

This time, on this issue, there must be no delay, no hesitation and no compromise with our purpose.

46
Q

March 1965, third Selma March, SCLC conference

A
  • 21st March 1965, 3000 cross Edmunds Petty Bridge
  • 300 march to Montgomery, arriving on 25th crowd swells on arrival
  • SCLC conference in Montgomery
47
Q

Gallup Poll as evidence of success of Civil Rights movement

A
  • By Spring 1965, 52% see Civil Rights as ‘most important issue’ facing the nation; 75% favour voting rights legislation
48
Q

Voting Rights Act and impact

A
  • August 6th, 1965
  • In days, 2.5 million line up to register
  • By ‘68, 1/2 of blacks in Alabama registered
49
Q

Civil Rights Act

A
  • Signed into law July 2nd 1964
  • Only eight months after LBJ inaugurated
  • Desegregation
50
Q

Who, according to Stephen F. Lawson, were the most important groups in the Civil Rights Movement?

A

‘The Big Six’

National Urban League
NAACP 
CORE 
SCLC
SNCC
51
Q

How did LBJ relate to the leaders of the Civil Rights Movement? (Stephen F. Lawson, Mixing Moderation with Militancy)

A
  • Understood need for them to keep pressure on him so as to remain a legitimate force for change in the eyes of black Americans
  • In return for them being allowed to pressure the President, he could ask for concessions
  • The Big Six set the standard for what was acceptable. Anyone who dissented risked ‘isolation’

EVIDENCE

  • Roy Wilkins (NAACP), A. Philip Randolph, Whitney Young (National Urban League) supported LBJ on Vietnam
  • Hiatus on protests when LBJ was campaigning against Goldwater

-James Farmer (CORE) had whitehouse access restricted after he refused moratorium on demos until after 64 election

52
Q

Conflict between MLK and LBJ

A
  • Relationship became strained after MLK publicly objects to the Vietnam War, calling LBJ ‘the greatest purveyor of violence in the world today’
53
Q

Was there a conflict between centralised Washington policy and the grassroots organisations such as the SNCC ?

A
  • LBJ liked to work through legislation, as is evident through the volume of legislation he passed in pursuit of the ‘Great Society’
  • Alternatively, SNCC was a ‘grassroots’, anti -establishment organisation (Lawson)

EVIDENCE

  • Child Development Group of Mississippi (CDGM) supervised head start programmes
  • Funded by War on Poverty programme
  • Programme drew scrutiny due to SNCC participation in the initiatives - targeted by SNCC who hoped to unfluence initiatives/head start programmes
  • –> Office of Economic Opportunity cuts funding, re-allocates it to reformed CDGM which would jointly supervise programmes with more moderate mixed race group.
54
Q

Women in the Civil Rights Movement and LBJ

A
  • Many women significant in operating at a grassroots level. Most notably Rosa Parks, but many others. Women abundant at meetings and marches
  • Stephen Lawson - ‘Freedom then, Freedom Now’
    YET
  • Lawson argues that LBJ saw social change as a ‘top down’ thing
  • Fewer women at top, so less interaction
  • Interacted with some eg Dorothy Height, Head of National Council of Negro Women
  • Heads of the Big Six were men
55
Q

SNCC’s James Forman on black power and the civil rights movement

A

‘The phrase ‘civil rights movement’ lay moribund, dead forever, with the birth of civil rights’

56
Q

Tuck on the long civil rights movement

Stephen Tuck, ‘We aint what we ought to be’

A
  • long movement
  • not just the 60s flashpoint or a ‘culmination’ but going on before and still going on now
  • broad view reveals ‘connecting patterns and themes’
  • ‘still going on’ - US Sup Court 2011 case in Virginia as support?
57
Q

Tuck on the diversity of the Civil Rights movement

Stephen Tuck, ‘We aint what we ought to be’

A
  • ’ there was no such thing as a single black protest because there was no such thing as a single black experience’
58
Q

Tuck on the nature of protesting - good historiography for violence –> nonviolence shift

Stephen Tuck, ‘We aint what we ought to be’

A
  • ‘Black activists protested at particular times and in particular ways not just because they suddenly wanted to, but because they suddenly could’
59
Q

Eric Arnesen, Reconsidering the Long Civil Rights Movement

HISTORIOGRAPHY, PERIODISATION

A
  • Arnesen accepts the general consensus that the Civil Rights movement was
  • Was it a movement?
    EP Thompson said a movement had a lifespan of 5-6 years

If the ‘long’ civil rights movement goes back to slave rebellions, does the period lose its value as a tool of analysis?

Seen more as a series of patterns by Tuck

60
Q

Arnesen contesting the ‘long’ history of armed resistance

Eric Arnesen, Reconsidering the Long Civil Rights Movement

A

Was this, in fact, the case? Did African Americans
know better? Did they “relentlessly” battle
Jim Crow after World War I? A small number of
black Southerners and an even smaller number of
whites participated in campaigns against the segregationist order, but the vast majority did not. And
for those on the front lines, activism itself came in
fits and starts.

61
Q

Arnesen on the role of the Old- Left in the Civil Rights movement

Eric Arnesen, Reconsidering the Long Civil Rights Movement

A

HAD A ROLE
It is certainly true that in many instances Left-led unions directed the charge against discrimination in the workplace and the community, and the Communist Party emerged with the reputation, in the words of one historian I spoke with, as “the only show in town” on the
race front. To say nothing beyond this, however,
misrepresents the party’s actual record.

Evidence
- A. P. Randolph Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters

OVERSTATED
To the second question—was the communist
Left-labor alliance the heart of the mid-century
movement?—the answer is a clear no.

“Long movement” scholars significantly overstate the influence of the Communist Party’s contribution to
the broader civil rights coalition.

Evidence
As Dorothy Sue Cobble has shown, leftleaning
women trade unionists had no monopoly
on early labor feminism,

Arnesen, Brotherhoods of Color, sketched out the
perspectives and crusades of numerous black railroad
unions, communist and non-communist alike,
to advance a civil rights unionism in the 1930s and
1940s

62
Q

Eric Arnesen, Reconsidering the Long Civil Rights Movement

The distinctive nature of the Civil Right’s Movement

A

That movement was
distinctive. It was significantly larger than its predecessors; it was visible nationally and consistently
in a way unmatched by earlier organizations; it attained
a genuinely mass character; it provoked a
violent backlash of unprecedented proportions;
and it ultimately succeeded in toppling legalized
segregation and enfranchising black Southerners.

63
Q

Albany Campaign 1962, evidence of declining affluence not being a factor in the decline of protest movements?

A
  • 20% of maids lost jobs permanently after participating in the marches
  • If they could afford to risk it, why couldn’t the student movements, as Breines suggests?

SIXTIES AMERICA AND ITS AFTERMATH (5 decks)

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