cities as novel ecosystems

Question 1

Remnant, Hybrid and Novel ecosystems - definitions

Answer 1

Remnant ES -> remain within their historical range of variability

Hybrid ES -> have been modified from their historical state, but could still revert back to it

Novel ES -> have been intensively modified and cannot return to historical conditions

Question 2

How do novel ecosystems arise?

Answer 2

arise from degradation, biological invasions, abandonement

Question 3

Controversial debate - arguments against the concept of novel ecosystems

Answer 3

• novelty is inherent in natural processes
• novelty concept represents no new idea
• no clear thresholds between novel and other ecosystems
• novelty concept is dangerous as it justifies the destruction of nature - and the targets of restoration ecology
• > No, ecological novelty is an analytic concept, without inherent relation to values