Christine - BIO - Flashcards
What can effect the lysogenic virus to become lytic?
The environmental conditions- example UV light
What is an antibody?
An antibody, also known as an immunoglobulin, is a large, Y-shaped protein produced mainly by plasma cells that is used by the immune system to neutralize pathogens such as pathogenic bacteria and viruses.
What do nerve cells secrete?
Nerve cells communicate chemically by releasing factors into the synapse between each other
What organelles do prokaryotes have?
All cells have a plasma membrane, ribosomes, cytoplasm, and DNA. Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and membrane-bound structures………….cells that do not cotain nuclei are prokarytoes , and do not contain most other organelles. However, bacteria contain flagella, whih
What processes contributed to genetic variation? What is the purpose of the sister chromatin separating?
crossing over, genetric recombination and mutations. The purpose of separating sister chromatin si jsut so the cells end of with the right number of chromatin (diploid number)
How many cell are produced in oogensis and why?
3( 1 egg and 2 polar bodie); The polar bodies produced during the first round of division do not divide durign the second
Why musst insulin be injected intravenously, while other enzymes such as lactase can be taken orally?
Insulin is a protein if it ws taken by mouth it would be broken down into its constituent a.a, and would never enter the blood
Which of the following parameters does the brain monitor most closely in regulating the rate of repiration?
The concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood and the blood pH
Which of the following parameters does the brain monitor most closely in regulating the rate of repiration?
the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood and the blood pH
What is the role of ADH? where is it made and where is it stored? which hormone does it work in conjuction with?
ADH is antidirectic hormone ecreted and made in the hypothalmus but stored in the pancreaus it functins in the collecting duct of the nephron of the kidney. It is here it causes the reuptake of H20 since this duct is impearmeable to H20. Increase levels will cause dismall volumes of concentrated urine
Hair follicles are loacted physically in the __, but hair consist of __ cells.
Hair are composed of epithelial cels celing pushed outward by dividung lower layer and as they get further from the nutirent supply, they die and are keritinized. The follicale itself however is located physcially in the dermis where it is protected from bacterial infection
Which of the following is not necessary for the slider filament model?
Atp is directly necessary to provide energy, calcium is necessary to activate the complex and troponin is necessart to bind to calcium and participate in activation. Creatine phsophate is often presnt and functions to recharge ADP to ATP but it not required for contraction
Under which condition would normal human body cooling mechanism work best?
Cooling mechamism work best at lower temperatures;
What are ligaments? what are tendons?What are the steps of muslce contraction?
Ligaments are involved in the connection of bones to other bone; tendons are bone to muscle: calcium is stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum of musces cells, and as the muscle cell becomes depolarized, it is released into the sacroplasm, where it directly stimulates troponin to initiate contraction. Sodium and postassium are involved only in the nerovus signal that depolaizes the sarcolemma
What are do the three layers present during development develop into?
Mesoderm–>
What are the Hardy weinberg equalibrium equations?
p+q=1 and 2pq+p^2+ q^2=1
Which of the following statements about the systemic effect of bacterial cells are true?
Gram negative bacteria are more likely to cause systemic effects because their outer membrane protects them from several antibiotics, making treatment more diffucult.
Which make up lactose and maltose?
Lactose: glucose and galactose; glucose is a monomer; maltose is two glucose molecules
Where does energy production place in bacteria that can perform aerobic metabolism
in the plasma membrane
What is the role of succinate dehydrogenase? What is unqiue about this enzyme?
is an enzyme in the inner mitoconfiral membrane of the mitocondria. It is the only enzyme that works in both the krebs cycle and the elecron transport chain. During the Krebs cycle, it catalyses the succinate to fumerate wit the reduction of ubinquine to ubiquinol producing FADH2.
What enymes in the Kreb cycle are inhibited by NADH?
The ones in which NADH is produced….Citrate synthase, pyruvate dehydrogenase, isocitrate dehydrogenase and alpha ketogluerate dehydrogenase
How many NADH2 and FADH are made in one round of the krebs cycle?
3 nADH and 1 FADH
What does the enxyme pyruvate dehydrogenase do?
pyruvate into aceytl coa… produced CO2
How does glucagon and epiniphrine influence the rate of glucagon degration?
Two ways: first it causes the signal transduction cascade pathway in which there is the activation of adenylate kinase causing the production of cAMP. which cused protein kinase A activity an then glucogen phosphoylase is activated through phosphorylation , then gluconegolysis is activated. The second ways is that phosphorylating and inactivating phosporprotein phosphottase -1 prevents dephosphroylation and deactivation of glycogen phosphorylase
What do the following enzymes do: phosphofructokinase- 2, fructose-2,6- biphosphate, pyruvate carboxylase, and glycogen synthase
fructsose-2,6-biphosphate: when insulin brings it it dephosphorylated so its activity is INHIBITED by insulin ( its phosphorylation is for glycogen breakdown); phosphofructokinase-2: increases with the dephosphorylation of the enzyme above, t is increased activity with insulin and cused the increase concentratin of fructose 2-6 biphosphate which activated phsophofructostinase-1 ( regulatory step of gylcolysis)
What type of hormones can pass through the cell membrane?
Peptide hormones- example glucagon and insulin can’t pass through the cell membrane; steriod hormones such as cholesterol can pass through because they are nonpolar
What does glucose- 6 - phosphatse d>
It is only present in the liver, and is responsible for the converion of glucose - 6- phospohate to glucose. But is this enzyme is not there then the glucose stays as glucose- 1- phosphate. if it stays as glucose -1 phosphate but goes not futher there is hypogylcemia cause the blood sugar is lower
Glygogen phosphorlase’s enxymatic action is resricted to cleavage of what type of glycosidic bond?
Glycogen phosphorylase cleaves the alpha 1-4 glycosidic linakge between glucose residues in glycogen
Into cells of which of the following tissues is glucose transport insulin- sensitive?
muscle cells and fat cells are two cell types most strongly influenced by insulin to increase uptake of extracellular glucose; the lense of the eye, RBC and the brain lack glucose receptors
What is ketogenesis?
Ketogenesis is the process by which ketone bodies are produced in the mitocondria of liver cells as a result of fatty scid breakdoen in reponse to the unavaiability of blood glucose
What are products of mitocondrial beta oxidation of Fatty acids?
NADH and ATP, they inhibit gluconeogensis
Red blood cells do or dont have nucleus?
They do not.
What are two ways G proteins increase singal?
cause ATP–> cAMP and for the transmisson of singal through increasing intracellular calcium ion concentration
What does the binding of glucagon to G protein receptors do?
activates G protein
What are eiconsanoids
Most eicosanoids are produced from arachidonic acid. … The eicosanoids derived from these fatty acids have a variety of effects on your body. For example, they play a role in inflammation, fever promotion, blood pressure regulation, and blood clotting.
What type of molecules and horomes pass through the membrane?
Small, hydrophobic molecules pass and steriod hormones pass; the perptide homeones have to uses extracellular receptors and large hydrophillc moleucles will not pass
How to actin and myosin interact in muscle tissue?
they are fibrous proteins that interact to form cross linkages that allow the sliding o filaments over each other in muscle contrations; when muslce contracts, the action and myosin filamnets slide over each other and the H zone ( actin only region), Zlines ( sarcomere boundaries) and I band (myosin only region) all shrink while the A band ( entre myosin region remains the same size
What are capillaries and where are they found?
Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in the body with walls that are comprosed of only a single layer of endothelial cells. Collagen, elastin and smooth muscle are found in . artiies and to a lesser exten viens not capillaries
What is gluconeogenesis?
gluconeogenesis occurs in the liver during a period of fasting, produces glucose from non carbohydrate carbon substrates such as yruvate, glycerol, lactae and TCA cycle intermediaes and the carbon skeletons of glucogenic amino acids ; acetyl COa CANNOT serve as a substrate
What cells make glucagon
lpha clls of he pancreas ; it promotes gylcogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
What are cholecystokinin
CCK acts in the small intestine upon the entry of food into the duodenum from the stomach. This is a peptide hormone that aids in digestion. Somatostatin inhibit the release of CCK and it s growth inhibiting hormone
What is a nonsense mutation
The introduction of a premature stop codon. The RNA stop codons are UAG, uAA and UGA.
what is the role of PTH and calcitonin?
PTH increases calcium levels in the blood when they are love by increased activity in osteoclast( which CRACK the bone; calcitonin Inhibit osteoclast activity when its released by C ells and inhibit osteoclast; osteoblast BUILD the one up bystoring calcium; Vitamin D is not always considered a hormone but can help in this process. Cholecalciferol is an inactive form of Vitmain D3 and when turned into its active form calcitriol it has a similar function to PTH( increases serum calcium levlesl but not through the CRACKing of bne but through the absorption of CAfro mthe gastontestinal tract
What does the parathyriod hormone activate
cosetoclast which crack bone and increase calcium levels in the blood
What is the difference in NA/ k pumps and Na channels?
Na channels open to depolarize the membrane and let the NA in the cell and NA/K pumps push out Na
What are the three germ layers and what do they each give rise to?
the ectoerm –> nervoud system and epidermis; the mesoderm forms many of the structures withing the body including the musculature, connective tisue( including blood bone and cartilage), the gonads, the kideny and the adrenal ortec. The endodern is responsoble for the interior linings of the body and the GI tract, the pancreus and part of the liver , the bladder the urethre and the lungs
What is the difference between the antisense and the sense strand of DNA.
The sense strand is never transcribed into RNA
What does SDS do?
it is a detergent that denature protiens when used. It ensure that polypeptides hae a negative charge proportional to the length of that molecule . Not needed for RNA or DNA
What is the wobble effect
Amino acids are coded for by three bases. with a 64 possible cofons and only 23 amino acids, a single amino acid may be coded for by several different codons.
how many oxygn molecules make one molecule of water in the electron transport chain
one electron from each of the four soluble cytochrone c mlecuels gets transferred int oa single oxygen and then coverted one O2 into 2 molecuels of water
Is the anode positive or negative in isoelectric focusing
anode is positive and the cathose is negaive ; isoelectric focusing procedures separate poteins or amino acids by isoelectric point
What do pancreatic alph cells relase
glucagon( a peptide hormone)
What do the following enxymes do: dehydrogenase, decarboxylase, aldolase, and isomerase
Dehydrogenation reaction involve the removal of hydrogen to form a double bond; decarboxylase catalzyes the decarboxylation reaction ( losing C in form of carobn dioxide); aldose: involved the condensation of 2 3 C structures into a larger aldol, mediated by aldose enzyme
A deficiency in which of the followign biological molecules will result in a halt in glycolysis?
ADP
Will disrupting the proton gradient in the ETC immediately stop the ETC?
No it will no longer be “ coupled” to the ATP production; uncoupling generates heat
What enzymes does gluconeogensis use to overcome the three irreversible steps of glycosis?
glucose- 6 phosphatase, fructure 1,6 bihosphatase, PEP carboxykinase and pyruvate carboxylase
What is the final step of glucolysis?
The fnal step is the conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate . In gluconerogensis the reverse of theis process require catalysis by both PEp carboxykinase and pryruvate carboxylase
In humas, gluconeogensis occurs in the
liver and to a lesser extend the kidneys
What processes are effected if the pentose phosphate pathway can not work? Where does the pentose phosphate pathway occur?
any anabolic pathway that used NADPH, ex nucleic acid and fatty acid synthesis ; it occurs primarily the liver ( where fatty acid synthesis occurs)
What does the regulation of blood pH involve?
It involved the interconversion between water and CO2, carbonic acid and bicarbonate.
What is the starting material for the pentose phosphate pathway?
glusoce 6 phosphate
What are the conidtions for a competivie inhibitor and a noncompetive inhibitor and a uncompetive inhibitpr?
Competive: higher KM and same V max; noncompetive vmax lower, and KM same and uncompetive both lower
Closest to _ isbest for reversible reactions
0kj/mol
What does increased CO@ levels cause?
acidosis
What molecules downregulate glycolysis
ATP and ADP
What happens to fats in the digestive pathway?
Dietary fats are absporbed after being broken into monoacylglyerol and free fatty acids by pancreatic lipase. there lipid soluble molecules can freeley diffure into intestinal cells and contribut to the formation of micelles which them ove into laacteals (lymphatic vessels) and are moved into circulation
Name three pos translational modifications
addition of sugars, lipids and phosphate groups
What is the function of bile
Ble acts as a surfactant to help emulsify ingested lipids by dirupting intermolecular attractions among lipids ; the panceatic lipase actually digest he triglyercies; bile also increased the duodenal pH
Refer to passage when it says “ according to passage
Refer to passage when it says “ according to passage
Define the following: TEr protein, and the Dicer enzyme
The Dicer enzyme is involed in producing siRNA, non replicating DNA, and the Ter protein acts during the terminaton step, while initiaion protiens function i nthe intiation step
How is DnA read, and how is it synthisized
DNA polymerase is ontly able to read in the 3–>5 and synthesized 5–#.
Why cant DnA polymerase initaite transcription without RnA polymerase
Cause it need the extra oh that RnA polymerase provides
How is DnA read and replicated? how is mRnA read in translation?
read 3-5 and replicated 5–3; mrNA is read from 5–3
Which type of mutation will knockout a proteins unctionality?
A premature stop codon ; UGA, UAA, UAG; rememeber DNA is the sense strand
What do silent mutations not do?
change the size or structure of the resulting proteins. You cant differentiate them on a gel
What is the fucntion of the acceptor stem in TRnA?
it plays a role in the recongistion of tRnA by aminoacyl tRnA synthestase. TRnA molecuels have acceptor stems of different lenghts and synthetases enxymes use these disticntion to differentate between tRNA substrates.The action of the amino acid binding is at the 3 prime end . and the anticodon is resons ible for bng to the mRnA codon
What are snRNA
they combine with proteins to form splicesomes, which splice intors out of the preMRNA transcript. the exon can then be rejoined to form the mature mRNA
What is more stable DNA or RNA
DnA
What is the function of the poly A tail? what is the function of the 5 prime cap?
It prevents enxymatic degration fo the transcript; and the 5 prime cap is for nuclear transport
What is the sense and antisense strand?
The snese strand is the non template strand, and the antisense strand is the template strand. therefore the RNA will have the same bases as the sense or nontemplate strandt
What bonds make up each of the four levels of protein structure?
Primary– peptide bond, secondary –hydrogen bonds that make up the alpha helixs and beta pleated sheets( alpha n and n+4 interact, in beta sheets line up next to each other; tertiary– backbones of the alpha helixs and beta pleated sheets, disulfide bridges 9only covalent), ionic interactions, dipole dipole, hydrogen or lond on dispersions forces, hydrophobic; quarternary stucture is multi polypeptides
What are the three stop codons
UAG, UGA, UAA
What are elongation factors and what are multiple release factors
Prokayrotes rely on the presecne of several release factos and eukaryotes need only translation termination factor. Elngation factors are in both prokaryotes nd eukaryotes
What are the sized of prokaytoic and eukaryotic ribosomes?
Prokaryotic ribosomes hae a 70S ( 50S and 30S) and eukaryotes have a 60 S size ( 40S and 20S)
What histone proteins are associated with human nucleosomes
H!,H2A, H2B, H4, H3,
What is the difference between heterochromatin and euchromatin
Euchromatin is associated wiht increased levels of transcription and is less tighylt packed, and heterochromatin ( apears around prophase of mitosis when the chrosomes condense) but is tightly backed and associated with downregulated regions such as the telemere, appears dark when view in microspce
How is a negative inducile operon activated and inactive
Inhibited by a repressoe and turned on by and inducer which blocks the repressor from binding
What is a protooncogene and oncogend
Protooncogene do not necessarily exhibit a greater or lesser rate of transcription; oncogenes are activated pro-toncogenes tent to result increased in cell proliferation
What is snoRNA, snRNA,aand hnRNA
small nucleolr (snoRNA) RNA are incoled in the modification of rRNA; snRNA 9 small nuclear EnR is found in the nucleus and they aid in the splice of premRNS. hrRNA is an alternative name for premTNa
When is hemoglobin in the T state? What about the Rstate? What increase by holding your breahe?
The t state is the tense state which has a lower affinity for O2, this would allow O2 to be released uickly. By holding yourr breathethis increase HCO3-
What cofactor does carbonic anhydrase need to function?
zinc ; carbon anhydrase catalyzed H2o and CO2 to carbonic acis- pat of buffering blood pH
What is cooperative binding
oxyhemogloin that contains free heme groups is significantly more confomationalyl aviable for binding than deoxyhemoglonin; cooperative binding involved the same molecue
When the blood vessel expand what does this do to the blood pressure?
if the blood vessel expan this would decrease blood pressure and if they cant expand then this would ause increase in blood pressure
What is the function of carbonic anhydrase
catalyzes CO2 intocarbonic acid with is further broken into bicarbonate and protons; this regualtes blood ph; CO2 + H2) —>
What are the different type of point mutations , and what is a frame shift mutation
sinense( the amino acid doesnt change); onsense( stop codon produced), missesne ( conservative- get the same amino aic0, nonconservative missense get diff amino acid) ; frameshift is the additiona or removal of a base pair and would likely cause many a.a downstream of the sequence to change
What is aldoseterone
a steriod hormone produced by the adrenal cortex and secrested in response to low blodd volume and pressure. It increases water and NA+ absorption from the dital tubles of kidenys
What is the renin- angiotesin- aldosterone system? what is the forumal for cardiac output= heart rateX stroke volume
this causes fluid retnetion in an elevated blood pressure
What are functions of the liver
hepatic hcolesterol and clotting factos synthesis and bilirubin( breaks down pproduct of heme) conjugation and excreterion . Bile is make in the liver ( for lipid digestion, it is an emulifier) ; blood with nutrients fro mthe small intestine comes here before if goes through the circulatory sstem .It also detoxyfies compounds, metabolizes certain drugs , stores excess carbohydrates and mbilised lipids into ciruclation i nthe form of lipoproteisn and breaking to glycogen isnecessar. THe liver also is the main site of gluconeogesis
When you want to dissolve somethng what type of compound should be used
polar solvent for polar molecules and non polar solvent for nonpolar compoounds
How does the solubility of a ionic substance in water change with increasing temp, how does it change for gas
increase temp and an ionic solution is more likley to dissolve in H20 and with gas the higher temp the solubility of . gas decreases 9 think you wannt keep a soad cold); with pressure you can increase the solutbility of a gas
What are diff types of isomers
Cis trans isomers have the same chemical but differnt physical properties, enantiomers have the same chmcal and phsical properties ; diasteromers ( multiple R-s flip) ( nonsuperimpossable not missor images) have similar chemical proterties but less similar physical properties ; Enantiomers ( all of the chirla centers switch and have the smae chemical and physical properties
What can cause molecular strain?
strain configurations have higher energy and and energentically unfavorable compared to less strained conformation. makes themmore reactive. At equilibrium chair conformations with bulky subsitutents are placed equatorially to minimze strain ; the opposite is with bulky subsitutents placed axially ; TORSIONAL STRAIN (electron clouds near one another brought into close proximity); nonbonded strain ( caused by subsitutients on non adjacent ring atoms being in close proximity) and ange strain ( bonding electrons of ring atos being brought close together by hybridizatin and VESPR theory )
What is the difference between a coenzyme and cofactor
coenzymes are organic cofactors and other cofactos are inorganic cofactos , and vitamins are nonmacronutirens that are vital for healhty functions and cannot be sythesized in adequate quantites by the body. Vitamin B and Vitamin C are coensymes and are water soluble,; A, D,E< and K are lipid soluble ; Vitaminaa plays a role in vision, D in calcium and phosphate absportion, E is an antioxidant and k promotes coagulation ; mnerals are inorganic -calcium, phosphorus magnesium sodium and potassium
What is the role of PEP caronxykinase?
To convert axaloacetate back into PeP in gluconeogensis, this occurs in the cytosol
What counts as a sterocenter? What is the
stereosiomers are molecules bonded in the same way but differ in 3D arragement. sterocenters include chiral centers and double bonds.2^n - the number of meso compounds; doube bonds must also have two different paths
What is the quaternary structure of a protein due to
quaternary stucture is dud to hydrophobic interactions and bnds between . side chains of aminos acids
What happens to hydrophobicity as polairty decreases?
As polarity decreases ( this will happen as the number and electrotivity of halogens decrease) hyrdophobicity decreases
What is a conservative mutation
a missense mutation ( change the amino acid) that is of a different group( nonpolar instead of poplar)
What does it mean to depolarize
Make the interior more positive
What is the function of albumin and fibrinogen
Fibrinogen is a soluble gylcoprotei nthat is converted y thrombin to fibrin (which cross lnks aggregates platelets during secondary homeostatis. fibrindoes not bind fatty acids; albumin is the min carrier fo free faty acids in the blood
Define the following: phage, transfection, transducton and transposable elments ; what is conjugation
a phage acquiresbacterial genetic material and transfers it to human host;transformation refers to a bacterias ability to absorb genetic mterial fro mthe enviroment; transduction is a virus mediated gene transferint oa bacteria;a bacteriphage; conugation can be thought of as the bacterial equivalent of sexualreproductions transfer of a plasmid through a bridge that is create when a sex pilis on one Know as the F+ hich refers to the presene of the fertility factor attachestoanother bacteriumsF-, the fertiity factor itself is duplicated transferred turing F- int oan F+. conjugation is a major mechanism tothe spread of antibiotic resistance
What is collagen
part of the skin, makes up a majority of t and is part of the connective tissue
Defne the following: connexin, cadherins, occludin
epithelia cellsdonot direcly connect to collagen instead they contain transmembren proteins known as integrins that can connect to collagen or to bridging protein like firbonectin which is connectes to collagen; connexin is a gap junction protein, cadherinc connect cell to ceel and occludins comprisse tight cell junctions
Where do the sensory or afferent nerved lie? where do th emotor or efferent lie ?
The Sensory nerons or the afferent nerons lie on the dorsal or rear side. The motor or efferent lie in the front or ventrl and lateral side
Define the following Oligodendrocytes, schwann cells, microglial, astrocytes
oligodendrocytes produce the myelin sheath of the CNA. Schwann cells form the mylein sheath in the PNS, microglial cells perform maintenance in the brain, while astrocytes help support the blood brain barrioer .
What cells use cilia to circulate CSF throught the brain and spinal chods
CSF is essential for the effective clearing of extracellular wasste. ependymal cells use cilia to circualte CSF through the CNS
What are the fnction of Monamine oxidase inhibitors and serotonin reuptake inhibitors
they increase extracellular concentrations of monoamine, such as dopamine and serotonin
What does myelin do?
Myelin affects conduction velocity, it does not effect if they fire. EPSP 9 excitatory postsynatptic potential
What does IpSP and EpSP stand for
Excitatory post synaptic potential and inhibitory post synaptc potential
how is the adrenal gland separated, what do each part release?
Int othe adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla. The cortex produced aldosterone and cortisol, and the medulla secrete epinephrine and nonrepinephrine
What hormones are produced by the anterior pituitary?
FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, prolacton and Gh. ADH is released by hypothalamus and stores in the posterir pituitarty and PTH is stores and produced n the parathyroid
Where is ADH produced? What should be known about the postier pituitary
hypothalmus; the poterior pituitaary does not produce the hormones it secretes. ADH is stored in the posterior pituitary and then released from here but made i nthe hypothalmus
Where is ACTH secrested from? What pathway is htis part of
Anterior pituitary and park of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal path
What does parathyroid gland produce
Parathyroid gland prodced and secretes parathyriod hormone whc opposes calcitonin to regulate calcium levels ; PTH increases the plasma calcium concentration by increasing CA absportion in the intesitine and extraction of the ion from bone density. Parathyroid and thyriod glands serve independent functions
What is a seocndary messenger
molecule in cell that increases message from receptor to target
What is the critical concentration rate
when no net depolyerization or polymerization
Why does polymerixtion occur much more rapidly at the plus end of actin polymer than at the negative end
the plu end tends to grow much more quickly than the minue end. the plue terminal displays significantly more powerful intermoleuler interactions than the minus end. when the plus actin polymerizes atp is cleaved to become adp. the adp ound actn at the minus end interact more wekly promoting slower if any polymerizaton
At the mnus end of a microtuble, depolymerization is precented by
anchoring of the end to an MTOC
Can the constant regions of anibodies differ
yes. those made by differnt species as well an the antibdies of different isotypes (igA and IgG
What is retrograde transport
Retrograde trasport involved moving in from the cell membrane to the ceneter of the cell. One exampe of somethign that moves retrogrde is dyein. it walks alons down microtubles to the minus end of mictrtubles to the center region of te cell
What is better for an enzyme to match- the substrate of the transition state
the transition state
What do noncompetitive inhibotrs due to Km and Vma
the km do not change the vmaz decrease
What is chymotrypsin
chymotrypsin works in the small intestine where the pH is higher due to bicrbonate
What is the function of coenzymes
they are a subset of cofactos that tend to bind loosely to there asociate enxymes for the transfering of functional groups between species. for example NAD. THey are mobile oppoed to prothetic groups which are tightly bound
What determines blood pressure
the cardiac ourput and the resistance to flow. The formulas for cardiac output is stroke volumeX heart rate
What types of bonds back up the tertiary structure of a protein
ionic, disulfide bridges, hydrophobic effect
What type of bonds are disulfide bonds
covalent
What doeshydrolase enzmye do
catalyzes hydolysis reactions
What does parathyriod hormone doe
causes the cracking of bone( activation of osteoclast) so that there is increase calcium in the blood
What hormone triggers ovulation
luteinizing hormone which will cause progesterone and estern sectretion
what does vasodiltion do
radiated excess heat int othe environment
What are facultative anaeribes
can engage in either aerobic or anaerobic metabolism
What is the function of an antibiotic
inhibits the growth and destroys a microorganism
What does vasodialaton effect blood pressure
Vasodialation decreases blood pressure
What side ofthe cytoplasmic face of a human plasma membrane are glycoprotens and glycolipids likely to be found
the cytoplasmic face
What is the difference between humoral and cell mediated immunity
Antibodies are involved in humoral immunity
What if the effect of adding cholesterol to a membrane?
At low temperature is increases fluidity and at high temperatures it decreases fluidity
What is the osmotic pressure formula
Osmotic pressure=iMRT
What is edmans degration and X ray crystallography used for?
Edmans’ degration is a technique used to sequence peptides by progressibely removing amino acids. X ray crystallogrpahy allows us t oinfer the #D( secondsry and tertiary) structure of the proten
What are the specific functions of the igG, igE, Ig M and ig A antibodies
IgG-provide most of the humman immune response throughout the bdoy; IgE are involved n allergies and antiparasitic repsonses; igM are antibodies comprised of early immune resposes before igG can be initiated IgA are in mucousal areas
What is the role of aldosterone and ADH?
Aldosterone is a steriod hormone made by the adrenal cortex in the adrema gland; it causes the kidneys to take up salt so that h2o would follow. Adh causes the uptake of H20
A multicolored calico cat was cloned, and it was found that each of the cloned offspring showed unqiue coloring patterns. which chromosome is the gene responible for fur color in the calcio cat most likely to occur on?
X
Explain what the following are used for; SDpage, western blotting, northern blotting and southern blotting
SDS page: is used to analyze proteins based on size alone; western blottting is used to anlayze amino acid sequences in proteins, southern blotting is used to analyse DNA sequences and northernblotting is used for RNA
What is the function of glycogen synthase and glycogen phosphorylase
Glycogen synthase helps creat glycogen and glycogen phosphorlase helps break down gylcogen
What is the pathway for the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis?
the hypothamamus secrecorticotropin releasing hormone, the anterior pituitary secretes ATCH and the adrenal cortex secrets cortisol
What is the effect of increase of insulin on fat
it breaks down fat
What is the type of immune cell tht can intiate cell death
T cells; Nautre kiler cells can also
Define the following: oncogene and tumor suppressor gene,
tumor suppressor genes increase the rick of cancer when they have a lost of function; oncogenes are genes that increase the risk of cancer when they have a gain of function
Define sensitivity? Specificity
Senstivity is the ability to detect those with the disease and specificity is the abilitiy to test hose without
How many carbnds does fructose have
6
identify the functions of the following; aldosterone, atrial natriruetic peptide, vassopressin
Vasopressin is ADH: causes the increase of water into the blood effects osmlarity; alosterone causes increase in salts taken back into blood and causes h2o to follow so increase bp; ANP- decreases bp by decreasing sodium reabsorption and increasing filtration in glomerous and inhibiting aldosterone
What is the purpose of the g2 M checkpoint
it is crucial to ensure tht recently replicted DNA was copied accuratlly
What occurs in each phase of the cell cycle
G1 is for protein and organelle producion in addition to cell growth.
What is the difference between apoptosis and necrosis
apoptosis is naturally occuring event, Programmed cell death, noninflammatory and necrosis involed uncontrolled cell deth
What does the ectoderm form
skin, NS and lens of eye hair
What is euchroatin
open chromatin
What do paracrine signal so
signal travels a very small distance but do not involved the hormone going in the blood; no hormonal movement here its paracrine suignalling
What doe the different mesopartsdevelop into
The chorda-mesoderm, as its name implies, develops into the notochord. The intermediate mesoderm develops into gonads and kidneys, the lateral plate mesoderm develops into the gut wall and circulatory system, and the paraxial mesoderm develops into skeletal muscle and cartilage.
What does the notochord develoe into
the vertebrate colum; part of mesoderm
When are g proteins active
when GTPbound
What i sthe best step to target for a biosynthesis reaction
the rate limitng step
What type of hormone goes through the membrane
steriod
What happens in stage 1 of the demographic transition moedl
the fertitliy rate is higher mortality rate is high and the population size tend to fluctuate moderately due to disease and catasthrophe
What is a proactive social movement ? A reactive movement
one that aims to promote change or make progress ; reactice resist change
What is the function of aldosterone
Aldosterone is released from the adrenal cortex in response to low blood pressure. It influences thereabsporption of sodiumin the distal tubule and the collecting duct. the distal tuble is the primary target
Does smooth muscle constain actin, myosin and troponin
action and myosin yes; not roponin
