Christine - BIO - Flashcards
1
Q
What can effect the lysogenic virus to become lytic?
A
The environmental conditions- example UV light
2
Q
What is an antibody?
A
An antibody, also known as an immunoglobulin, is a large, Y-shaped protein produced mainly by plasma cells that is used by the immune system to neutralize pathogens such as pathogenic bacteria and viruses.
3
Q
What do nerve cells secrete?
A
Nerve cells communicate chemically by releasing factors into the synapse between each other
4
Q
What organelles do prokaryotes have?
A
All cells have a plasma membrane, ribosomes, cytoplasm, and DNA. Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and membrane-bound structures………….cells that do not cotain nuclei are prokarytoes , and do not contain most other organelles. However, bacteria contain flagella, whih
5
Q
What processes contributed to genetic variation? What is the purpose of the sister chromatin separating?
A
crossing over, genetric recombination and mutations. The purpose of separating sister chromatin si jsut so the cells end of with the right number of chromatin (diploid number)
6
Q
How many cell are produced in oogensis and why?
A
3( 1 egg and 2 polar bodie); The polar bodies produced during the first round of division do not divide durign the second
7
Q
Why musst insulin be injected intravenously, while other enzymes such as lactase can be taken orally?
A
Insulin is a protein if it ws taken by mouth it would be broken down into its constituent a.a, and would never enter the blood
8
Q
Which of the following parameters does the brain monitor most closely in regulating the rate of repiration?
A
The concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood and the blood pH
9
Q
Which of the following parameters does the brain monitor most closely in regulating the rate of repiration?
A
the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood and the blood pH
10
Q
What is the role of ADH? where is it made and where is it stored? which hormone does it work in conjuction with?
A
ADH is antidirectic hormone ecreted and made in the hypothalmus but stored in the pancreaus it functins in the collecting duct of the nephron of the kidney. It is here it causes the reuptake of H20 since this duct is impearmeable to H20. Increase levels will cause dismall volumes of concentrated urine
11
Q
Hair follicles are loacted physically in the __, but hair consist of __ cells.
A
Hair are composed of epithelial cels celing pushed outward by dividung lower layer and as they get further from the nutirent supply, they die and are keritinized. The follicale itself however is located physcially in the dermis where it is protected from bacterial infection
12
Q
Which of the following is not necessary for the slider filament model?
A
Atp is directly necessary to provide energy, calcium is necessary to activate the complex and troponin is necessart to bind to calcium and participate in activation. Creatine phsophate is often presnt and functions to recharge ADP to ATP but it not required for contraction
13
Q
Under which condition would normal human body cooling mechanism work best?
A
Cooling mechamism work best at lower temperatures;
14
Q
What are ligaments? what are tendons?What are the steps of muslce contraction?
A
Ligaments are involved in the connection of bones to other bone; tendons are bone to muscle: calcium is stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum of musces cells, and as the muscle cell becomes depolarized, it is released into the sacroplasm, where it directly stimulates troponin to initiate contraction. Sodium and postassium are involved only in the nerovus signal that depolaizes the sarcolemma
15
Q
What are do the three layers present during development develop into?
A
Mesoderm–>
16
Q
What are the Hardy weinberg equalibrium equations?
A
p+q=1 and 2pq+p^2+ q^2=1
17
Q
Which of the following statements about the systemic effect of bacterial cells are true?
A
Gram negative bacteria are more likely to cause systemic effects because their outer membrane protects them from several antibiotics, making treatment more diffucult.
18
Q
Which make up lactose and maltose?
A
Lactose: glucose and galactose; glucose is a monomer; maltose is two glucose molecules
19
Q
Where does energy production place in bacteria that can perform aerobic metabolism
A
in the plasma membrane
20
Q
What is the role of succinate dehydrogenase? What is unqiue about this enzyme?
A
is an enzyme in the inner mitoconfiral membrane of the mitocondria. It is the only enzyme that works in both the krebs cycle and the elecron transport chain. During the Krebs cycle, it catalyses the succinate to fumerate wit the reduction of ubinquine to ubiquinol producing FADH2.
21
Q
What enymes in the Kreb cycle are inhibited by NADH?
A
The ones in which NADH is produced….Citrate synthase, pyruvate dehydrogenase, isocitrate dehydrogenase and alpha ketogluerate dehydrogenase
22
Q
How many NADH2 and FADH are made in one round of the krebs cycle?
A
3 nADH and 1 FADH
23
Q
What does the enxyme pyruvate dehydrogenase do?
A
pyruvate into aceytl coa… produced CO2
24
Q
How does glucagon and epiniphrine influence the rate of glucagon degration?
A
Two ways: first it causes the signal transduction cascade pathway in which there is the activation of adenylate kinase causing the production of cAMP. which cused protein kinase A activity an then glucogen phosphoylase is activated through phosphorylation , then gluconegolysis is activated. The second ways is that phosphorylating and inactivating phosporprotein phosphottase -1 prevents dephosphroylation and deactivation of glycogen phosphorylase
25
What do the following enzymes do: phosphofructokinase- 2, fructose-2,6- biphosphate, pyruvate carboxylase, and glycogen synthase
fructsose-2,6-biphosphate: when insulin brings it it dephosphorylated so its activity is INHIBITED by insulin ( its phosphorylation is for glycogen breakdown); phosphofructokinase-2: increases with the dephosphorylation of the enzyme above, t is increased activity with insulin and cused the increase concentratin of fructose 2-6 biphosphate which activated phsophofructostinase-1 ( regulatory step of gylcolysis)
26
What type of hormones can pass through the cell membrane?
Peptide hormones- example glucagon and insulin can't pass through the cell membrane; steriod hormones such as cholesterol can pass through because they are nonpolar
27
What does glucose- 6 - phosphatse d>
It is only present in the liver, and is responsible for the converion of glucose - 6- phospohate to glucose. But is this enzyme is not there then the glucose stays as glucose- 1- phosphate. if it stays as glucose -1 phosphate but goes not futher there is hypogylcemia cause the blood sugar is lower
28
Glygogen phosphorlase's enxymatic action is resricted to cleavage of what type of glycosidic bond?
Glycogen phosphorylase cleaves the alpha 1-4 glycosidic linakge between glucose residues in glycogen
29
Into cells of which of the following tissues is glucose transport insulin- sensitive?
muscle cells and fat cells are two cell types most strongly influenced by insulin to increase uptake of extracellular glucose; the lense of the eye, RBC and the brain lack glucose receptors
30
What is ketogenesis?
Ketogenesis is the process by which ketone bodies are produced in the mitocondria of liver cells as a result of fatty scid breakdoen in reponse to the unavaiability of blood glucose
31
What are products of mitocondrial beta oxidation of Fatty acids?
NADH and ATP, they inhibit gluconeogensis
32
Red blood cells do or dont have nucleus?
They do not.
33
What are two ways G proteins increase singal?
cause ATP--> cAMP and for the transmisson of singal through increasing intracellular calcium ion concentration
34
What does the binding of glucagon to G protein receptors do?
activates G protein
35
What are eiconsanoids
Most eicosanoids are produced from arachidonic acid. ... The eicosanoids derived from these fatty acids have a variety of effects on your body. For example, they play a role in inflammation, fever promotion, blood pressure regulation, and blood clotting.
36
What type of molecules and horomes pass through the membrane?
Small, hydrophobic molecules pass and steriod hormones pass; the perptide homeones have to uses extracellular receptors and large hydrophillc moleucles will not pass
37
How to actin and myosin interact in muscle tissue?
they are fibrous proteins that interact to form cross linkages that allow the sliding o filaments over each other in muscle contrations; when muslce contracts, the action and myosin filamnets slide over each other and the H zone ( actin only region), Zlines ( sarcomere boundaries) and I band (myosin only region) all shrink while the A band ( entre myosin region remains the same size
38
What are capillaries and where are they found?
Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in the body with walls that are comprosed of only a single layer of endothelial cells. Collagen, elastin and smooth muscle are found in . artiies and to a lesser exten viens not capillaries
39
What is gluconeogenesis?
gluconeogenesis occurs in the liver during a period of fasting, produces glucose from non carbohydrate carbon substrates such as yruvate, glycerol, lactae and TCA cycle intermediaes and the carbon skeletons of glucogenic amino acids ; acetyl COa CANNOT serve as a substrate
40
What cells make glucagon
lpha clls of he pancreas ; it promotes gylcogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
41
What are cholecystokinin
CCK acts in the small intestine upon the entry of food into the duodenum from the stomach. This is a peptide hormone that aids in digestion. Somatostatin inhibit the release of CCK and it s growth inhibiting hormone
42
What is a nonsense mutation
The introduction of a premature stop codon. The RNA stop codons are UAG, uAA and UGA.
43
what is the role of PTH and calcitonin?
PTH increases calcium levels in the blood when they are love by increased activity in osteoclast( which CRACK the bone; calcitonin Inhibit osteoclast activity when its released by C ells and inhibit osteoclast; osteoblast BUILD the one up bystoring calcium; Vitamin D is not always considered a hormone but can help in this process. Cholecalciferol is an inactive form of Vitmain D3 and when turned into its active form calcitriol it has a similar function to PTH( increases serum calcium levlesl but not through the CRACKing of bne but through the absorption of CAfro mthe gastontestinal tract
44
What does the parathyriod hormone activate
cosetoclast which crack bone and increase calcium levels in the blood
45
What is the difference in NA/ k pumps and Na channels?
Na channels open to depolarize the membrane and let the NA in the cell and NA/K pumps push out Na
46
What are the three germ layers and what do they each give rise to?
the ectoerm --> nervoud system and epidermis; the mesoderm forms many of the structures withing the body including the musculature, connective tisue( including blood bone and cartilage), the gonads, the kideny and the adrenal ortec. The endodern is responsoble for the interior linings of the body and the GI tract, the pancreus and part of the liver , the bladder the urethre and the lungs
47
What is the difference between the antisense and the sense strand of DNA.
The sense strand is never transcribed into RNA
48
What does SDS do?
it is a detergent that denature protiens when used. It ensure that polypeptides hae a negative charge proportional to the length of that molecule . Not needed for RNA or DNA
49
What is the wobble effect
Amino acids are coded for by three bases. with a 64 possible cofons and only 23 amino acids, a single amino acid may be coded for by several different codons.
50
how many oxygn molecules make one molecule of water in the electron transport chain
one electron from each of the four soluble cytochrone c mlecuels gets transferred int oa single oxygen and then coverted one O2 into 2 molecuels of water
51
Is the anode positive or negative in isoelectric focusing
anode is positive and the cathose is negaive ; isoelectric focusing procedures separate poteins or amino acids by isoelectric point
52
What do pancreatic alph cells relase
glucagon( a peptide hormone)
53
What do the following enxymes do: dehydrogenase, decarboxylase, aldolase, and isomerase
Dehydrogenation reaction involve the removal of hydrogen to form a double bond; decarboxylase catalzyes the decarboxylation reaction ( losing C in form of carobn dioxide); aldose: involved the condensation of 2 3 C structures into a larger aldol, mediated by aldose enzyme
54
A deficiency in which of the followign biological molecules will result in a halt in glycolysis?
ADP
55
Will disrupting the proton gradient in the ETC immediately stop the ETC?
No it will no longer be " coupled" to the ATP production; uncoupling generates heat
56
What enzymes does gluconeogensis use to overcome the three irreversible steps of glycosis?
glucose- 6 phosphatase, fructure 1,6 bihosphatase, PEP carboxykinase and pyruvate carboxylase
57
What is the final step of glucolysis?
The fnal step is the conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate . In gluconerogensis the reverse of theis process require catalysis by both PEp carboxykinase and pryruvate carboxylase
58
In humas, gluconeogensis occurs in the
liver and to a lesser extend the kidneys
59
What processes are effected if the pentose phosphate pathway can not work? Where does the pentose phosphate pathway occur?
any anabolic pathway that used NADPH, ex nucleic acid and fatty acid synthesis ; it occurs primarily the liver ( where fatty acid synthesis occurs)
60
What does the regulation of blood pH involve?
It involved the interconversion between water and CO2, carbonic acid and bicarbonate.
61
What is the starting material for the pentose phosphate pathway?
glusoce 6 phosphate
62
What are the conidtions for a competivie inhibitor and a noncompetive inhibitor and a uncompetive inhibitpr?
Competive: higher KM and same V max; noncompetive vmax lower, and KM same and uncompetive both lower
63
Closest to _ isbest for reversible reactions
0kj/mol
64
What does increased CO@ levels cause?
acidosis
65
What molecules downregulate glycolysis
ATP and ADP
66
What happens to fats in the digestive pathway?
Dietary fats are absporbed after being broken into monoacylglyerol and free fatty acids by pancreatic lipase. there lipid soluble molecules can freeley diffure into intestinal cells and contribut to the formation of micelles which them ove into laacteals (lymphatic vessels) and are moved into circulation
67
Name three pos translational modifications
addition of sugars, lipids and phosphate groups
68
What is the function of bile
Ble acts as a surfactant to help emulsify ingested lipids by dirupting intermolecular attractions among lipids ; the panceatic lipase actually digest he triglyercies; bile also increased the duodenal pH
69
Refer to passage when it says " according to passage
Refer to passage when it says " according to passage
70
Define the following: TEr protein, and the Dicer enzyme
The Dicer enzyme is involed in producing siRNA, non replicating DNA, and the Ter protein acts during the terminaton step, while initiaion protiens function i nthe intiation step
71
How is DnA read, and how is it synthisized
DNA polymerase is ontly able to read in the 3-->5 and synthesized 5--#.
72
Why cant DnA polymerase initaite transcription without RnA polymerase
Cause it need the extra oh that RnA polymerase provides
73
How is DnA read and replicated? how is mRnA read in translation?
read 3-5 and replicated 5--3; mrNA is read from 5--3
74
Which type of mutation will knockout a proteins unctionality?
A premature stop codon ; UGA, UAA, UAG; rememeber DNA is the sense strand
75
What do silent mutations not do?
change the size or structure of the resulting proteins. You cant differentiate them on a gel
76
What is the fucntion of the acceptor stem in TRnA?
it plays a role in the recongistion of tRnA by aminoacyl tRnA synthestase. TRnA molecuels have acceptor stems of different lenghts and synthetases enxymes use these disticntion to differentate between tRNA substrates.The action of the amino acid binding is at the 3 prime end . and the anticodon is resons ible for bng to the mRnA codon
77
What are snRNA
they combine with proteins to form splicesomes, which splice intors out of the preMRNA transcript. the exon can then be rejoined to form the mature mRNA
78
What is more stable DNA or RNA
DnA
79
What is the function of the poly A tail? what is the function of the 5 prime cap?
It prevents enxymatic degration fo the transcript; and the 5 prime cap is for nuclear transport
80
What is the sense and antisense strand?
The snese strand is the non template strand, and the antisense strand is the template strand. therefore the RNA will have the same bases as the sense or nontemplate strandt
81
What bonds make up each of the four levels of protein structure?
Primary-- peptide bond, secondary --hydrogen bonds that make up the alpha helixs and beta pleated sheets( alpha n and n+4 interact, in beta sheets line up next to each other; tertiary-- backbones of the alpha helixs and beta pleated sheets, disulfide bridges 9only covalent), ionic interactions, dipole dipole, hydrogen or lond on dispersions forces, hydrophobic; quarternary stucture is multi polypeptides
82
What are the three stop codons
UAG, UGA, UAA
83
What are elongation factors and what are multiple release factors
Prokayrotes rely on the presecne of several release factos and eukaryotes need only translation termination factor. Elngation factors are in both prokaryotes nd eukaryotes
84
What are the sized of prokaytoic and eukaryotic ribosomes?
Prokaryotic ribosomes hae a 70S ( 50S and 30S) and eukaryotes have a 60 S size ( 40S and 20S)
85
What histone proteins are associated with human nucleosomes
H!,H2A, H2B, H4, H3,
86
What is the difference between heterochromatin and euchromatin
Euchromatin is associated wiht increased levels of transcription and is less tighylt packed, and heterochromatin ( apears around prophase of mitosis when the chrosomes condense) but is tightly backed and associated with downregulated regions such as the telemere, appears dark when view in microspce
87
How is a negative inducile operon activated and inactive
Inhibited by a repressoe and turned on by and inducer which blocks the repressor from binding
88
What is a protooncogene and oncogend
Protooncogene do not necessarily exhibit a greater or lesser rate of transcription; oncogenes are activated pro-toncogenes tent to result increased in cell proliferation
89
What is snoRNA, snRNA,aand hnRNA
small nucleolr (snoRNA) RNA are incoled in the modification of rRNA; snRNA 9 small nuclear EnR is found in the nucleus and they aid in the splice of premRNS. hrRNA is an alternative name for premTNa
90
When is hemoglobin in the T state? What about the Rstate? What increase by holding your breahe?
The t state is the tense state which has a lower affinity for O2, this would allow O2 to be released uickly. By holding yourr breathethis increase HCO3-
91
What cofactor does carbonic anhydrase need to function?
zinc ; carbon anhydrase catalyzed H2o and CO2 to carbonic acis- pat of buffering blood pH
92
What is cooperative binding
oxyhemogloin that contains free heme groups is significantly more confomationalyl aviable for binding than deoxyhemoglonin; cooperative binding involved the same molecue
93
When the blood vessel expand what does this do to the blood pressure?
if the blood vessel expan this would decrease blood pressure and if they cant expand then this would ause increase in blood pressure
94
What is the function of carbonic anhydrase
catalyzes CO2 intocarbonic acid with is further broken into bicarbonate and protons; this regualtes blood ph; CO2 + H2) --->
95
What are the different type of point mutations , and what is a frame shift mutation
sinense( the amino acid doesnt change); onsense( stop codon produced), missesne ( conservative- get the same amino aic0, nonconservative missense get diff amino acid) ; frameshift is the additiona or removal of a base pair and would likely cause many a.a downstream of the sequence to change
96
What is aldoseterone
a steriod hormone produced by the adrenal cortex and secrested in response to low blodd volume and pressure. It increases water and NA+ absorption from the dital tubles of kidenys
97
What is the renin- angiotesin- aldosterone system? what is the forumal for cardiac output= heart rateX stroke volume
this causes fluid retnetion in an elevated blood pressure
98
What are functions of the liver
hepatic hcolesterol and clotting factos synthesis and bilirubin( breaks down pproduct of heme) conjugation and excreterion . Bile is make in the liver ( for lipid digestion, it is an emulifier) ; blood with nutrients fro mthe small intestine comes here before if goes through the circulatory sstem .It also detoxyfies compounds, metabolizes certain drugs , stores excess carbohydrates and mbilised lipids into ciruclation i nthe form of lipoproteisn and breaking to glycogen isnecessar. THe liver also is the main site of gluconeogesis
99
When you want to dissolve somethng what type of compound should be used
polar solvent for polar molecules and non polar solvent for nonpolar compoounds
100
How does the solubility of a ionic substance in water change with increasing temp, how does it change for gas
increase temp and an ionic solution is more likley to dissolve in H20 and with gas the higher temp the solubility of . gas decreases 9 think you wannt keep a soad cold); with pressure you can increase the solutbility of a gas
101
What are diff types of isomers
Cis trans isomers have the same chemical but differnt physical properties, enantiomers have the same chmcal and phsical properties ; diasteromers ( multiple R-s flip) ( nonsuperimpossable not missor images) have similar chemical proterties but less similar physical properties ; Enantiomers ( all of the chirla centers switch and have the smae chemical and physical properties
102
What can cause molecular strain?
strain configurations have higher energy and and energentically unfavorable compared to less strained conformation. makes themmore reactive. At equilibrium chair conformations with bulky subsitutents are placed equatorially to minimze strain ; the opposite is with bulky subsitutents placed axially ; TORSIONAL STRAIN (electron clouds near one another brought into close proximity); nonbonded strain ( caused by subsitutients on non adjacent ring atoms being in close proximity) and ange strain ( bonding electrons of ring atos being brought close together by hybridizatin and VESPR theory )
103
What is the difference between a coenzyme and cofactor
coenzymes are organic cofactors and other cofactos are inorganic cofactos , and vitamins are nonmacronutirens that are vital for healhty functions and cannot be sythesized in adequate quantites by the body. Vitamin B and Vitamin C are coensymes and are water soluble,; A, D,E< and K are lipid soluble ; Vitaminaa plays a role in vision, D in calcium and phosphate absportion, E is an antioxidant and k promotes coagulation ; mnerals are inorganic -calcium, phosphorus magnesium sodium and potassium
104
What is the role of PEP caronxykinase?
To convert axaloacetate back into PeP in gluconeogensis, this occurs in the cytosol
105
What counts as a sterocenter? What is the
stereosiomers are molecules bonded in the same way but differ in 3D arragement. sterocenters include chiral centers and double bonds.2^n - the number of meso compounds; doube bonds must also have two different paths
106
What is the quaternary structure of a protein due to
quaternary stucture is dud to hydrophobic interactions and bnds between . side chains of aminos acids
107
What happens to hydrophobicity as polairty decreases?
As polarity decreases ( this will happen as the number and electrotivity of halogens decrease) hyrdophobicity decreases
108
What is a conservative mutation
a missense mutation ( change the amino acid) that is of a different group( nonpolar instead of poplar)
109
What does it mean to depolarize
Make the interior more positive
110
What is the function of albumin and fibrinogen
Fibrinogen is a soluble gylcoprotei nthat is converted y thrombin to fibrin (which cross lnks aggregates platelets during secondary homeostatis. fibrindoes not bind fatty acids; albumin is the min carrier fo free faty acids in the blood
111
Define the following: phage, transfection, transducton and transposable elments ; what is conjugation
a phage acquiresbacterial genetic material and transfers it to human host;transformation refers to a bacterias ability to absorb genetic mterial fro mthe enviroment; transduction is a virus mediated gene transferint oa bacteria;a bacteriphage; conugation can be thought of as the bacterial equivalent of sexualreproductions transfer of a plasmid through a bridge that is create when a sex pilis on one Know as the F+ hich refers to the presene of the fertility factor attachestoanother bacteriumsF-, the fertiity factor itself is duplicated transferred turing F- int oan F+. conjugation is a major mechanism tothe spread of antibiotic resistance
112
What is collagen
part of the skin, makes up a majority of t and is part of the connective tissue
113
Defne the following: connexin, cadherins, occludin
epithelia cellsdonot direcly connect to collagen instead they contain transmembren proteins known as integrins that can connect to collagen or to bridging protein like firbonectin which is connectes to collagen; connexin is a gap junction protein, cadherinc connect cell to ceel and occludins comprisse tight cell junctions
114
Where do the sensory or afferent nerved lie? where do th emotor or efferent lie ?
The Sensory nerons or the afferent nerons lie on the dorsal or rear side. The motor or efferent lie in the front or ventrl and lateral side
115
Define the following Oligodendrocytes, schwann cells, microglial, astrocytes
oligodendrocytes produce the myelin sheath of the CNA. Schwann cells form the mylein sheath in the PNS, microglial cells perform maintenance in the brain, while astrocytes help support the blood brain barrioer .
116
What cells use cilia to circulate CSF throught the brain and spinal chods
CSF is essential for the effective clearing of extracellular wasste. ependymal cells use cilia to circualte CSF through the CNS
117
What are the fnction of Monamine oxidase inhibitors and serotonin reuptake inhibitors
they increase extracellular concentrations of monoamine, such as dopamine and serotonin
118
What does myelin do?
Myelin affects conduction velocity, it does not effect if they fire. EPSP 9 excitatory postsynatptic potential
119
What does IpSP and EpSP stand for
Excitatory post synaptic potential and inhibitory post synaptc potential
120
how is the adrenal gland separated, what do each part release?
Int othe adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla. The cortex produced aldosterone and cortisol, and the medulla secrete epinephrine and nonrepinephrine
121
What hormones are produced by the anterior pituitary?
FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, prolacton and Gh. ADH is released by hypothalamus and stores in the posterir pituitarty and PTH is stores and produced n the parathyroid
122
Where is ADH produced? What should be known about the postier pituitary
hypothalmus; the poterior pituitaary does not produce the hormones it secretes. ADH is stored in the posterior pituitary and then released from here but made i nthe hypothalmus
123
Where is ACTH secrested from? What pathway is htis part of
Anterior pituitary and park of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal path
124
What does parathyroid gland produce
Parathyroid gland prodced and secretes parathyriod hormone whc opposes calcitonin to regulate calcium levels ; PTH increases the plasma calcium concentration by increasing CA absportion in the intesitine and extraction of the ion from bone density. Parathyroid and thyriod glands serve independent functions
125
What is a seocndary messenger
molecule in cell that increases message from receptor to target
126
What is the critical concentration rate
when no net depolyerization or polymerization
127
Why does polymerixtion occur much more rapidly at the plus end of actin polymer than at the negative end
the plu end tends to grow much more quickly than the minue end. the plue terminal displays significantly more powerful intermoleuler interactions than the minus end. when the plus actin polymerizes atp is cleaved to become adp. the adp ound actn at the minus end interact more wekly promoting slower if any polymerizaton
128
At the mnus end of a microtuble, depolymerization is precented by
anchoring of the end to an MTOC
129
Can the constant regions of anibodies differ
yes. those made by differnt species as well an the antibdies of different isotypes (igA and IgG
130
What is retrograde transport
Retrograde trasport involved moving in from the cell membrane to the ceneter of the cell. One exampe of somethign that moves retrogrde is dyein. it walks alons down microtubles to the minus end of mictrtubles to the center region of te cell
131
What is better for an enzyme to match- the substrate of the transition state
the transition state
132
What do noncompetitive inhibotrs due to Km and Vma
the km do not change the vmaz decrease
133
What is chymotrypsin
chymotrypsin works in the small intestine where the pH is higher due to bicrbonate
134
What is the function of coenzymes
they are a subset of cofactos that tend to bind loosely to there asociate enxymes for the transfering of functional groups between species. for example NAD. THey are mobile oppoed to prothetic groups which are tightly bound
135
What determines blood pressure
the cardiac ourput and the resistance to flow. The formulas for cardiac output is stroke volumeX heart rate
136
What types of bonds back up the tertiary structure of a protein
ionic, disulfide bridges, hydrophobic effect
137
What type of bonds are disulfide bonds
covalent
138
What doeshydrolase enzmye do
catalyzes hydolysis reactions
139
What does parathyriod hormone doe
causes the cracking of bone( activation of osteoclast) so that there is increase calcium in the blood
140
What hormone triggers ovulation
luteinizing hormone which will cause progesterone and estern sectretion
141
what does vasodiltion do
radiated excess heat int othe environment
142
What are facultative anaeribes
can engage in either aerobic or anaerobic metabolism
143
What is the function of an antibiotic
inhibits the growth and destroys a microorganism
144
What does vasodialaton effect blood pressure
Vasodialation decreases blood pressure
145
What side ofthe cytoplasmic face of a human plasma membrane are glycoprotens and glycolipids likely to be found
the cytoplasmic face
146
What is the difference between humoral and cell mediated immunity
Antibodies are involved in humoral immunity
147
What if the effect of adding cholesterol to a membrane?
At low temperature is increases fluidity and at high temperatures it decreases fluidity
148
What is the osmotic pressure formula
Osmotic pressure=iMRT
149
What is edmans degration and X ray crystallography used for?
Edmans' degration is a technique used to sequence peptides by progressibely removing amino acids. X ray crystallogrpahy allows us t oinfer the #D( secondsry and tertiary) structure of the proten
150
What are the specific functions of the igG, igE, Ig M and ig A antibodies
IgG-provide most of the humman immune response throughout the bdoy; IgE are involved n allergies and antiparasitic repsonses; igM are antibodies comprised of early immune resposes before igG can be initiated IgA are in mucousal areas
151
What is the role of aldosterone and ADH?
Aldosterone is a steriod hormone made by the adrenal cortex in the adrema gland; it causes the kidneys to take up salt so that h2o would follow. Adh causes the uptake of H20
152
A multicolored calico cat was cloned, and it was found that each of the cloned offspring showed unqiue coloring patterns. which chromosome is the gene responible for fur color in the calcio cat most likely to occur on?
X
153
Explain what the following are used for; SDpage, western blotting, northern blotting and southern blotting
SDS page: is used to analyze proteins based on size alone; western blottting is used to anlayze amino acid sequences in proteins, southern blotting is used to analyse DNA sequences and northernblotting is used for RNA
154
What is the function of glycogen synthase and glycogen phosphorylase
Glycogen synthase helps creat glycogen and glycogen phosphorlase helps break down gylcogen
155
What is the pathway for the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis?
the hypothamamus secrecorticotropin releasing hormone, the anterior pituitary secretes ATCH and the adrenal cortex secrets cortisol
156
What is the effect of increase of insulin on fat
it breaks down fat
157
What is the type of immune cell tht can intiate cell death
T cells; Nautre kiler cells can also
158
Define the following: oncogene and tumor suppressor gene,
tumor suppressor genes increase the rick of cancer when they have a lost of function; oncogenes are genes that increase the risk of cancer when they have a gain of function
159
Define sensitivity? Specificity
Senstivity is the ability to detect those with the disease and specificity is the abilitiy to test hose without
160
How many carbnds does fructose have
6
161
identify the functions of the following; aldosterone, atrial natriruetic peptide, vassopressin
Vasopressin is ADH: causes the increase of water into the blood effects osmlarity; alosterone causes increase in salts taken back into blood and causes h2o to follow so increase bp; ANP- decreases bp by decreasing sodium reabsorption and increasing filtration in glomerous and inhibiting aldosterone
162
What is the purpose of the g2 M checkpoint
it is crucial to ensure tht recently replicted DNA was copied accuratlly
163
What occurs in each phase of the cell cycle
G1 is for protein and organelle producion in addition to cell growth.
164
What is the difference between apoptosis and necrosis
apoptosis is naturally occuring event, Programmed cell death, noninflammatory and necrosis involed uncontrolled cell deth
165
What does the ectoderm form
skin, NS and lens of eye hair
166
What is euchroatin
open chromatin
167
What do paracrine signal so
signal travels a very small distance but do not involved the hormone going in the blood; no hormonal movement here its paracrine suignalling
168
What doe the different mesopartsdevelop into
The chorda-mesoderm, as its name implies, develops into the notochord. The intermediate mesoderm develops into gonads and kidneys, the lateral plate mesoderm develops into the gut wall and circulatory system, and the paraxial mesoderm develops into skeletal muscle and cartilage.
169
What does the notochord develoe into
the vertebrate colum; part of mesoderm
170
When are g proteins active
when GTPbound
171
What i sthe best step to target for a biosynthesis reaction
the rate limitng step
172
What type of hormone goes through the membrane
steriod
173
What happens in stage 1 of the demographic transition moedl
the fertitliy rate is higher mortality rate is high and the population size tend to fluctuate moderately due to disease and catasthrophe
174
What is a proactive social movement ? A reactive movement
one that aims to promote change or make progress ; reactice resist change
175
What is the function of aldosterone
Aldosterone is released from the adrenal cortex in response to low blood pressure. It influences thereabsporption of sodiumin the distal tubule and the collecting duct. the distal tuble is the primary target
176
Does smooth muscle constain actin, myosin and troponin
action and myosin yes; not roponin
177
Does electron delocalization imply the compound is nonpolar or polar
nonpolar
178
What are analogous structure
Analogous structure are those that evolved independently to carry out the same function. Homologous strucgues ar ethose that have a similar evolutionaly history ( from the same source) even if the not have different function
179
what is the effect of cholesterol on membrane fluidity at high temperatures and low temperatures
Cholesterol increased the rigidity of cells at high and moderae temps) including physiological temp); At low temperature cholesterol fills in the gaps between phsopholipid tails preventing the membrane from becoming to rigid- more cholesterol more fluid at low temp
180
What are ways the ph in the blood is buffered
through equilibrium between carbond dioxide and carbonic acid, coupled with hemoglobin and through the amino acid residues that make up the protein may act as Bronsted acids or bases, reduing shifts in PH
181
What is the role of PTH?
PTH role is to increase serum calcium levels; this is done by reabsorbing CA in the kidney and activating osteoclast which crack bone to release calcium . It also decreased phosphate reabsorption. It is antagonistic to calcioton
182
What are examples of peptide hormones
vasopressin, FSH, ACTH....Peptide hormone that behave like Steriod hormone examples: thyroid hormone T3 and prohormone T4 ( thyroxine)
183
What is required for the diagnosis of major depressive disorder
At least one of the two major smptons of depressed mood( sadness) or lack of pleasure ( anhedonia)
184
What about a nerve response never changed
The strength ( amplitude) ; but more impulses or sigals recieved per second can cause a better interpretation
185
hat type of lipid increase fluiditiy
polyunsaturated ; one example is omega 3
186
Wha increases fluidity at low temperatures
high levels of unsaturated fatty acis and high levels of sterols ; however large amonts of cholesterol decreases fluidity at high temperatures but increase at low temperatures
187
What are the solubility rules
1 ll asalt containign alkali metal( G1) or ammonium cations are water soluble. 2. All salts containin the nitrite( NO3^-) or acetate ( CH3Coo-) anions are water soluble. 3. All chlorides, bromides and iodides are water soluble with the exception of AG, Pb and Hg. 4. All salts of the sulfate ion (so4) are water soluble with the exception of CA, Sr, ba and pb. All metal oxides are insoluble with the exception of the alkai metals an caO and srO4, Ba), all of whihc hysrolzye to form colutions of the corresponding metal hydroxides 6. All hydroxidse are insoluble with the exception of the alki metals and CA, SR, and Ba&. 7. Al carbonates and phosphates sulfides and sulfites are insolule with the exception of alki and ammonium
188
if a ion is not moving agaisnt its concentration gradient is it active or passive transport?
passive
189
What does the sodium potassium pump do
Pumps 3 Nat out of the fell and 2 in the cell so that k is higher in cell than out and na is higher out than in cell
190
What is phagocytosis
it is a specialised type of endocytsis
191
What is the function of the golgi apparatus
cellular "post office" it recieves proteins from the ER and packages them int ovesicles, these memrane bound sacs can travel to specidic locations within the cell or the plasma membrane for excretion. Also, lysosomes are fromed vesicles that bud off from the goldi larger structure.
192
What is the ER part of
The nuclear envelope
193
What is the role of actin
cytokinesis, muscle contraction, and phagocytosis
194
What do microtubles function in
path way for motor proteins( kinesin and dynein) Make up cilia and flagella
195
What is the role of keratin and collagen
Keratin fiber extend across epithelial cells to link adjacent cells via desmosones . THey are a type of intermediate filament that posseses a high tensile strenght . It is the cytoskeletal protein that contibuted most to skins stetching ability. Collagen cntribues heavily to the tensile strnght fo connective tissue in the skin. However it is a fiber in the ECM noa component of the cytoskeleton
196
What are characteristics of microtubles
microtubles hace a large diameter, they are ridgid ; nerons rely on microubles to transprt neurotransmitted containing vescles and macromolecules along their axon
197
What is a Hfr bacteria
These cells, the F plasmid has become incorporated int othe organism's cicular chromosome.
198
What is a transpoon
Clas 1 trandpoons are knowans as " copy and paste" transpoons as they involve the reaction of a new copy of the transposable element. These elements first undergo transcription int oRNA and usin RNA polymerase; as there name imples they are then reverse transcribe bak into DNA and laced in a distinct location elesewhwre i nthe genome. Class II are cut and past
199
A virus remains in the capside until
it enters the cell
200
What is a negative sense RnA
it cannot be directly translated by host ribosomes to produce functional viral proteins. THe - RNa must be used as a template strans for the production of +rna by viral RNA polymerase carried within the capsid. RNA depended RNA polmerase does this
201
What prodced veverse transcritase
the host
202
What type of filament is keratin
an intermediate filament
203
Where are lipids snthesized in the body
phospholipids like most lipids are synthessized at the surface of the smooth Er before being packaged into vesicles and deliever to the plasma membreane or stored in the cell for futrue use
204
What type of drug would not stay in a liposome
hydrophobic drugs
205
What type of structures connect cells
desomsomes , tight junctions and gap junctions
206
How is a protein synthesized
MRNA is read rom the 5--3 prime end and a proteinis synthesized fro m the N to c terminous
207
What are the parts of the repiratory system
nostrils or the oral cavity--> phraynx--> epiglottis-- larynx--> trachea--> bronchi--> 2bronchi--> 3 bronchi--> bronchioles--> alveoli ( gas exchange)
208
Is it possible for monosomies to survive? trisomies
no monosomies can survive; the only trisomies that can re 13, 21, and 18 ; monosomy X can occure
209
How many genes in the human body? How many proteins
20,000 genes and 200,000proteins
210
what is km
Km ( is like Ka) it is the affinity the enzyme has to for the substrate, and is defined as the concentration of 1/2 vmax
211
What does acetylation do? What does methylation do?
Acetylation opens the DNA ( euchromatin) and Methylation closes it ( heterochromatin)
212
How is an peptide chain constructed
N--> c ; N terminus is normally charged at physiological pH
213
What are the differences between prokaryoties and eukaryoties
Prokaryotes have circular DnA, rotating flagella, different size ribosomes and a cell wall containing peptidolycan that encloses the cell membrane
214
What are the difference between diastereomers and enantiomers
Enantiomers are mirror image; and diasteromes are not ; anomers are a form of epimer( epimers are sugars that differ at only one steroceter.
215
Wha are the three types of structural isomers
Chain isomers- different arrangments of the carbon skelton, functional isomers are isomers where the molecular formula remains the same, but the type of functional group in the atom is changed. And positional isomers have a given functinal group in different locations( example 1-pentaol vs 2-pentanol)
216
What are eicosanoids
a large family of lipids dervived from arachidonic acid, a 20 carbon omega 6 polyunsaturacted fatty acid with four cis double bounds . Thye are a lrge family of isngalling molecules known as prostaglandins, whihchave a diverse range of effects, including the modulation of inflammation.
217
What is a neutralization rection
An acid and base that product salt and water . t
218
Do electron pairs count as " things" attached with hybridization
Yes
219
What happens as a result of diabetes
hight blood sugar, high levels glucose in urine; fatty metabolism is relied on and because gluconeognesis is going on there are many acetyl coa molecules that cant be used in the CAC ( CAC intermediates used for gluconegogeneis); so the acetyl coas units are turned in fatty breakdown in which keto bodies are made high ketobodies in blood and then urine;
220
What does it mean to be isoelectric
It means to have no net electric charge. this hapens whn the pH equals the pKA ; so take the average of the two most relevant PKa's on the amino acid
221
are lipid molecuels polar or non polar
Large nonpolar regions; so soluble in nonpolarsolutions
222
What is a detergent
Example SDS. As a detegent it has both a hydrophobic and phyrophilli end, like soap . It denatures all but the primary stucure by y coating the protein and destroying hydrophobic interactions
223
What is needed for a western blott procedure?
I na western blotting procedure, the proteins in the original mixture are first separated on an SDS- page gel. Typically ,in addition to SDS, a reducign agent is used to break disulfide bonds that may be present between syteine residues. Next antibodies are sued to detect particular species.
224
what does comppound need to be classified as an aromatic compound
contain planar, conjugated rings and follow Huckel's rule, which stipulates that the system must posssess 4n+2pi electrons ( n denoted any itegr meaning that romatic systems may contain 6,10, or 14pi and so on
225
What does the half equivalence point stand for
The half equivlance point stands for the pKa
226
What is the amino acide GLU
Glutamate
227
What are adherens
Adheren junctions are a type of anchoring junction that link the cytoplasmic face of cells to actin of the cytoskeleton
228
Is oil polar or nonpolar
polar
229
What are the types of anchoring junctions
addheren junctions, hemisdesomsomes and desmosomes
230
How can the blood pH be buffered by amino acids
Amino acids buffer a solution either by gaining or releasing H+ depending o ntheir abillities and on the condition of the environement.
231
What are tight junctions
closely associated regions of adjacent cells that form a virtually impermeabile fluid- example in the blood brain barrier
232
What are gap junctions
Gap junctions are communicating junctions that directly connect cells allowing the passage of molecules ions and elecrical impulses between cells through regulated gates
233
What is the average molecular weight of an amino acid
1 dalton equals 1 amu... 110Dalton approximately; average side chain is 30
234
What is Kcat
Kcat is the turnover number-the maximum number f chemical conversons of substrate molecules per second that a single catalytic site will execute for a give nenzyyme concnetration ( ET) it is eual to Vmax/ET
235
What is transuction? What is tranformation
When a bacteriophage transfers genetic material from one bacteria cell to another during infection ; Tranformation is when the bacteria pick up genetic material from their surroungings; and congunction is when a bacterium exchanged gntic matil with another cell via specialized sex pilus
236
What is an aerotolerant organisms
this means it does not die in the prescence of oxygen
237
What are bacteriophages
bateriaphages are a form of bacteria infecting virus and are not considered living organisms at all
238
What is Clas 1 transpoon
Class 1 transpoosn are " copy and paste" and ivole the creation of a new transposable lement. Class II is " cut and paste"
239
What is the order of development
Zygote--> morola ( 16 cells that are the same size as the orignal zygote)--> Blastula(hallow)--> gastrula-->three germ layers
240
Waht is (-) RNA
a template for (=) RNA and RNA dependent RNA polymerase is needed
241
What can reverse transcriptase do
first from ssRnA makes DNA then makes the second strand o DNA from this template. Reverse transcriptase must be carried intact with the capsid in order to proces the RnA genoem.
242
What is the bodies reaction to prions?
Prions tend to induce misfoling and aggregaton of endogenous cellular proteins, forming highly stable amlod fibers. The natural cellular response to the presence of misfolding proteins is the production of het shoc pprotiens which help properly old the defective protiens molecules
243
What happens at ovulation
at ovulation the follicle burs and releases a secondary oocyte. the remainder of he follicle gives rise to the copus luteum, whihc directly releases progesterone and estradiol
244
What are megakaryocytes
They are large bone marrow cells with large nucleus which are reponsible for the production of platetes rich are necessary for normal blood clotthing
245
Whaat are the art of the small and large intestine
The small intestine ( duodenum--> jejunum--> ilem) and the large intestine is the cecum--> colon and rectum
246
f some thing is doubled what percent increase is this
100Percent
247
What is the best way to study form and function
use an expression system to produce a large quanity of Hb1/
248
What digest protein, carbohydrates and fats within the digestive system?
Proteins are digested by pepsn trypsin and chymotrypsin (proteases) in the small intestien; fat is emulsified by bile and a carb is digested . nthe month and small intestine by amylase
249
What is the function of glucosidase
to add a sugar
250
What are the biproducts of triglyercide metabolism
which yields one glycerol moleucle and 3 fatty acid molecules; this break down is called fat oxidation
251
What does one turn of the citric acd cycle produce
3 NADH, 1 FADH2 and 1 ATP aand 2 co2
252
What is the relative size of bacteria, virus and Eukaryotic cells
viruses are 100 times smaller than bacteria; and eukaryotic cells are about 1,000 times larger than a virus
253
What is an acrosome
an organelle at the head of a sperm
254
What are desmosomes
Desomosomes are a structure composed of a complex of feratin fibers which hold onto extracellular proteins that aird in cell to cell adhesion at the junction between cells. They are responsible for holding together cells of epidermis.
255
IN a pedigree wihtich chape is male and which is female
male is square and female is round
256
What is the importance of glucose metabolism
Glucose metabolism is important for the gneration of celular energy ribose and reducign NADPH, all of which are necessary for increased DNa and protein synthesis associated with replicatin
257
What structure of bacteria contain peptidglycan? Do gram postive or neg have more
Cell wall and gram positive
258
in an action potential where does Na go and K go?
Na goes in and k goes out
259
What are oltage gated calcium channels
They are required for neurtransimtter release not propagating an action potential down an action potential
260
What system effect the parasympathic and which effect the sympathetic nervous sytem
Noneprinephrne and epinephrine effect the sympathic and acetylcholine effect the parasympathic
261
What is a megakaryocytes
megakaryocytes are large bone marrow cells with nucleus which ae reposnible for he porduction of platelets which re vecessary for normal blood clotting
262
How do prions act
they intend to induce msfolding and aggregation of endogenous cellular proteins, forming highyl stable amylliod fibers. The natural cellular response to presence of misfolded proteins is the production of heat shoch proteins, which help to properly fold the defective protein molecules.
263
Does a gram postive or gram negative bacteria have an outer membrane
gram negative
264
What is a protazoa
asingle celled Eukaryotic organism; has organelles
265
What is transduction, transformation and conjuncation?
Transduction involves the transfer of genetic materia through a viral vector; transformation occurs when bacteria pick up genetic material from their environment; and conjugation is whne a bacterium exchanged genetic material with another cell via a specialized sex pilus
266
What is a class one transpoon and what is a class two transpoon
class one is is copy and paste so there is an extra copy of the transposable element; and the class two is a cut and paste
267
What is needed when a virus contains negative sense RNA
the viral RNA polymerase to make -RNA into RNA. THis enzyme is called RNA dependent RNA polymerase
268
What contributes to the color appearance of an object
any viaible light that strikes the object and becomes reflected of transmitted to our eyes will contribute to the color appearance of that obect
269
What are T3 and T4 homrones
thye increase basal rate metabolism
270
What is the function of gap junction in an electrical signaling
gap junctions allow for the elecrical impulse to travel through several cells without the use of a neurotransmitter. Conduction along muscle cells is an example
271
What is a chemorecptor exampels and what type of receptors are used in the visual pathwya
chemoreceptors are used in the olfactory system and in the visual pathwya chemoreceptors are used
272
What is the order tht light goes through the eye
the cornea,pupil, vitreous gel to the retina
273
What is the optic disk
The optic dish is the point in the back of the eye where axons leave the eye into the optic nerve there are no rods or cones overlying the optic disc, there is a small blind spot
274
What is emmetropia and presbyopia
Emmetropia is when the yee is completely relaxed and focused on an objected more than 6 meters aways resulting in essentially parrallel light rays that are focused on the retina wihtout effort; presbyopia is a type of farsightedness caused by the lose of elacticity of the lense of the yee
275
What are catecholamines
They contain a 1,2 dihyxroxyl benznes groups as well as an amine and are water soluble. Important catecholamies are epinephrine9 adrenaline), nonrepineephrne and dpamine. The first two are hromoes released by the adrenal meddula and actin conjuction i nthe sypathetic nervous system. Dopamine is a neurotransmtter
276
What hormone stimulates the production of testosterone
Luteinizing hormone is produced by the pituitary gland and in males stimulaes the production of testosterone byt leydig cells in the testis. Follicle stimulating hormone is secreded by the pituitary gland and in males stimulates the primary spermatocytes to undergo meiosis
277
What is the function of the smooth ER?
the main function is to make cellular products like hormones and lipids
278
Why can blackflow of blood occur in the heart
The ventircules are larger and more muscular than the tria and therefore can create more pressure
279
What happends during systole and dystole
In disytole the artia contract and the ventriles relax; then in systole; the ventricles contract the mitral and the tricuspic valve close and the semilunar valves open so blood enters the arteries
280
What are purinje fibers
Purkinje fibers allow the action potentials to distrbute evenly across he heart tissue and allow for a synchronized contractin of the ventricles
281
What is the function of the vegus nerve
The vagus nerve is part of th automatic nervous system and allows paraysmpathic control of the heart and digestive system
282
What is blood plasma
Like the extracellular matrix of blood; it makes up over half of the blood
283
What is urea
Urea ia a nitrogen caontaining comound from the catabolism of proteins; if there are excess amino acids urea and keto acids will form ; this happens in the liver
284
What causes a righ shift i nthe oxygen curve
This happens durign exercise because there is an increase of PaCo2 increased protons s odecrease pH and an increase in temp. THIS IS CALLED THE bohr effect, specifically it is the proton that bind to the hemoglobin that causes it to have a lower affinity for oxygen
285
What has higher hyfrostatic pressure the pressure in the veins and venules of rties and atrioles
the atreoles and arerioles
286
What is lysozyme?
An enzyme in salvia that degrades that peptdoglycan portion of the bacterial cell walls and therefore acts as part of the innate immune
287
what are the function of chef cells
Chief cels relese pepsingen that activated into pesin when it comes in contact with acid. Gastrin is a hormone that stimulates secretion of acid in the stomach
288
Which of the following is an important nzyme required for digestin in the small intestine that is also synthesized by the duodem
Enteropeptdase is an enzyme produced by the duodenum and converts trypsinogen into the active form of trypsin
289
What does the colon is to absorb
to absorb water
290
What is the exocrine system exocrne secretion is when a substance leaves the body some way
exit the body
291
What attaches muscle to bone
tendon
292
What does surfacant coat
alveoli
293
The primary oocyte is stalled in prophase 1 until
Puberty
294
What is human chorionic gonadotropin (hcG ) produced from
From the embryo after implantation and it promotes the maintenance of the corpus luteum
295
What differentiates polar bodies from the egg
the polar bodies have less cytoplasm but the same amount of DNA
296
What is the function of bile? What is the function of pancreatic lipase?
Pancreatic lipase is responsible for the hydrolysis of dietary fat molecules via cleavage of ester linkage; and bile acts in part as a surfactant helping to emulsify ingested lipids n disrupting intermolecular attractions among lipids. Anionic bile salts contain both hydrophobc and hydrophillic components. As a result they aggregate around lipid droplets of triaglcerides and phospholipids to form micelles.This increased the surface area of lipids available for the action of thenzyme pancreatic lipase which actually digest the tracylgeride
297
Where is glycogen stored
In the liver so therefor most of glucagon's action occurs in the liver
298
What is an organic acid
an organic cmpound must contain carbon and hydrogen. there must be a covalent bond between a carbon and hydrogen. Organic acids are weak acids generally with the formula R-CO2H. The acidic hydrogen is bound to and
299
What is renin
Renin is an enzyme that stimulates angiotension which stimulates aldosterone production
300
What is the chemical formula of acetone
C3OH6
301
What interactions occur in alpha helix and beta pleated sheets
They are a result of secondary structure
302
What does aprotic mean
that is does not contain Oh or NH bonds
303
Should have got htis was a little confused why two light bands were in A
Should have got htis was a little confused why two light bands were in A
304
What type of nucleotide can have catalytic function
RNA
305
What is a nucleoside
a sugar attached to a pyrimidine ring or purine ring
306
What composes a nucleotide
a ribose sugar, phosphate ( or three or two) and base
307
Where are the proteins cloudi nand occuldin found
ntestinal lining
308
What is a hemidesmosome
a demihesmosome connect a cell to the extracellular matric and therefore fo not provide cell to cell connections
309
Wht is the effect of glucocorticoids such as cortisol on the immune sytem
immunosuppression
310
What types of hormones are the following: vasopressin, thyroxine, FSH, serotonin, T4, testosterone and ACTH
peptide, petide that acts as steriod, peptide and serotnin, liipid, lipid and protein
311
What synthesizes collagen
fibroblast; collagen makes up connective tissue
312
What is an inegrin?
Integrins connect to collagen ormore typically to a bridging protein like fibronectin, which itself connects to collagen
313
what are microglia cells and what are astrocytes
Microgla cells perform maintenance in the brain and astrocytes help support the blood brin barrier
314
Were are sensory nerves located, where areefferent nerves located
motor nerons are frontal and sensory are dorsal
315
What system is bathed in CSF
CNs
316
what does myelination
conduction velocity not neuron exciability
317
What does the adrenal cortex secrete
cortisol and aldosterone
318
How do unsaturated fats behave at room temperature
Unsaturated fats give the cellular membrane greater fluiditiy and functinalitywhile lowering the freezing temp
319
What is a direct product of beta oxidation
NadH, ATP is not a direct product but is made when beta oxidation products go through other pathways
320
What is the function of glycogen phosphorlase
glycogen phosphorylase typically cleaves segments from glycogen molecules while staying at least four monomeric units away fro the branch point.
321
what type of bond does a dehydration reaction form
a double bond
322
What is gibbs freeenergy
The energy required to covert one mole of reactants to one mole of products
323
What does fructose 1-6 biphosphatase
It is an enzyme that converts fructose 1,6 biphosphate back to fructose 6- phostate so it can participate in glycolyis
324
What is glycogen synthase, what reaction foes it catalyze
glycogen synthase is known as glycosyltransferase and catalyzes the reaction of ruidine diphaosphate glucose ( UDP glucose) and short polymers of glucose and converts them into long polymers of glycogen
325
What is the defintions of gibbs free energy
The gibbs free energy change or the free enerfy difference between the final( products0 and initial ( reactants0 sttes of the reaction under sandard conditions ( inidcated by the ^0 symbols which are 1 M solutions , 1 atm of pressure and 273K
326
What is phosphofructokiase and how is it regulated
Phosphofructokinase is a kinase enzyme tha phosphorylates fructose- 6 phosphate so that it can participate in glycolysis
327
The vitamin riboflavin is part what molecule
FAD
328
What type of enzyme if a protease hydrolase
hydrolase-catalyzed the hydrolysis of a substrate ; remember a lyase is the breaking of a bond that does not form a hydrolysis reaction
329
What is the difference between secondary and primary active transport
Primary active transport involved breaking down ATP; for example the sodium potassium channel is an example of primary actve transport; and Secondary active transport inolved the use of an ion gradient like the electron transport chain
330
What are the enzymes used in the krebs cycle
citrate synthase, aconitase, isocitrate dehydrogenase; oxalsuccinate decarboxylase , keto gluterate dehydrogenase, succunyl thiokinase, succinate dehydrogenase, fumerase, malate dehydrogenase
331
What is an imprinted gene
Imprinted genes are expressed in a parent-specific maner
332
What is atropy
the degeneration of cells
333
What is oncotic pressure
onocotic pressure is simply another term for the osmotic pressure that exists due to proteins. Albumn ( like other proteins0 is too large to diffuce through capillary. Instead this protein stays in the capillary bed and draws water with its associated toxins and waste products from tissues to the blood stream. But remember diffuction only happens at the cappillaries
334
How does vasoconstriction keep the body warm
When the muscles constrict inthe vessels near the body surface the blood is shunted away fro mthe colder external environment.
335
What vessel does blood travel slowest throuhg
capillaries
336
What are the two states of hemoglobin
The T state, stabilized by HCO3 which allows for more oxygen to be released int othe tissue, and has less affinity for oxygen. And the R state which is the related state and has greater affinityy
337
What is the role of helpet t cels
part of cell mediated immunity; helper t cells are critical for activtion of the immune response ( b cells) and the cellular immune response . Helper te cells also produce cytokines that fully activate macrophages allwing them to establish a mosre acidic phagosomal pH and kill pathogens more effectively. lose of helper t cells comprimist the whole immune system
338
What happens after macrophaged enguld bacteria
There is a respiratory burst in which atp is produced very fast to provide energy for the rapid acidificaton of phagosomes via proton pumps
339
What are suppressor t cells
Activation of suppressor t cells triggers production of a cytokine cocktail that activated other immune cells including the cytotoxic t cells and NK cells tht are vital for tumor elimination
340
What is kd the same as
km and kd are similar as a lower number of both is equivalent to a higher affinity but km is the association rate and kd is the dissociation rate
341
What type of tissue are ovarian cells
epithelial cells
342
what is the role of rna poylmerase
to make Rna fro mDNA
343
What removes a phosphate
phosphatase
344
what isthe role of glycogen phosphorylase
glycogen phsphorylase is the enzyme that catalyzes the rate limiting step in glycogen breakdowm
345
What can be used as starting products for gluconeogenesis
lactate, oxaloacetate and alphaketogluterate
346
What does the sympathetic nervous system do in relation to digestion
inhibits peistalisis and the secreation of digestive enzymes
347
How does the cell repolarize
through the opening of K channels that release K from the cell to counterblance the influx of na
348
What are main functions of the liver
detoxification of poisions and the production of bile( facilitates fast absorption in the small intestine by breaking large fat droplets into smaller ones) ; these are only 2 of them
349
How many ATP are produced in glycolysis
new 2 atp and 2 are used
350
Any disruption of the mitochondria is likely to do what ot ATP production
decrease ATP production
351
What does NADH sound for
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
352
What are cadhesions
Cadhesions are transmembrane proteins that play a primary role in cell to cell adhesions
353
What are integrins
Integrins are transmembrane receptors that modulae cell to extracellular matrix interaction . Specifically they attach to collagen and fibronectin fibers
354
Where is connective tissue
tendons cartilage and blood vessel
355
What are antibodies, immunoglobulins and antigens
Antibodies are immunogloblins they attach to antigens
356
What does PTH and calcitonin each activate
PTH activates osleoclast- break bone, increase absorption of CA to increas plasma ca concentration; calcionin decreases plasma concentration of Ca. calcitronin decreases plasma concetration of Ca by activating osteoblast which cause boneformation . Bone resportion is the break down of bone promoted by PTh via osteoclast
357
When does a absolute refractory period occur
basically through the whole action potential during which time a second acton potential cannot be generated . During this time volate gate sodium channels are inactivated . if the inactivation gate is closed but the chnnels are inactivated , and if the inactivation gate is open but the activation gate is closed- it is de-inactivated . this occrs at the end of the action potential( generally during hyperpolarization). This is the relative refractory period which potassium channels are still actie . And another action potential could occur but it would need to be greater than normal
358
What is a mediating variable
it explains the relationship between the dependent and independent variable
359
What is the difference between postive sense rNA and negative snese Rna
Positive sense RNa contain mRNA that immediately be translated by the cell. and negative sense rna viruses contain RNA that is complementary to mRnA meaning that mRnA must be synthesized by an enzyme knwon as RNA replicase that is carreid in the virion
360
How does filtration rate change with increasing molecular weight
filtration rate decreases as molecules get bigger
361
What is the pleural cavity
he pleural cavity is the thin fluid-filled space between the two pulmonary pleurae (known as visceral and parietal) of each lung
362
What is the peritoneal cavity
The peritoneal cavity is a potential space between the parietal peritoneum (the peritoneum that surrounds the abdominal wall) and visceral peritoneum (the peritoneum that surrounds the internal organs).
363
What type of bond is a peptide bond
amide
364
What is the equilibrium constante
K= products/reactants
365
How does the rates of reverse and foward reaction relate to the equilibrium constant
Keq=Kforward/ Kreverse
366
Where does a line fall if everything is the same but it has a lower slope
below
367
How many electrons are pasted in cytochrome c
1 electron (becaus Fe+2 becomes Fe+3); cytochrome c is involved in complex 3 and 4
368
Where does fatty acid synthesis take place
in the cytoplasm
369
What makes up a fatty acid
Hydrocarbon ( hydrophobic tail) and a carboxylic acid head
370
What is the function of glycoen phosphorylase
Glycogen phorsporylase typicaly cleaves segments from glycogen molecuels while staying at least four onomeric units away from the branch point
371
What is meant by the phrase " the largest decrease in entropic pentalty"
this means what is more energetically favorable
372
What does the ectoderm fomr
nervous system. epidermis lens of eye inner ear and mouth
373
What is responsible for protein folding
hydrophobic interactons
374
What is the LN of 10
2.3
375
What is a direct product of beta oxidation
NADH and FADh2 ; aTP is not- it is indiectly made
376
What is coenzyme Q10
Conenzyme is * 10 ia a hydrophobic,vitamin like substacne containing a benzoquionce like functional grou that readily accepts and doantes electrons . Coenymes Qis a componement of the electron transport chain of aerobic respiration
377
What is biotin
biotin is a bvitamin involved in synthesis of fatty atids. it carries activated Co2
378
What is folic acid
Folic acid is a synthetically produed food supplement and must be reduce to its active form of tetrahydrofolate which is a B vitamin involved in numbrous biological functions
379
Is cellular DNA left or right handed
Cellular DNA is right handed
380
What your you know abot the thermodynamic product
The thermodynamic product is more stable
381
What is the role of helicase
Helicase separates the two strands and used ATP
382
What way is DNA synthesized and what way is the DNA template read
DNa is synthesized in the 5--> 3 and read in the 3--> 5 direction
383
What are exonucleases and endonucleases
Endonucleases are a class of enzymes that cleave the phosphodiester bond at various spots within a polynucleotide. Exonucleases are enzymes that specifically cleave nucleotides one at a time from the end of the polynucleotide.
384
What is phosphodiester bond
a bond between the 3 hydroxyl and phosphate attache dto a 5 prime sugar
385
What initiates DNA synthesis
primase
386
does Rna polymerase need a primer
no only DnA polymerase needs an RNA primer
387
What does aminoacyl tRNa synthase do
it forms an ester bond between an amino aci and transfer RNA . The 3' end of the tRNA is used
388
How in translation initiated
tranlsation is intiated when the large ribosomal subunit recongies the Shine dalgarno sequence of the RnA which is 10 nucleotides upstream; this is only for bacteria
389
Where doe the initiation of translation start
The P site and the a is empyty
390
What is peptidyl transferase
It is an enzyme used in forming peptides in ribosomes
391
What is the net reaction of peptide bond synthesis
amino acid + TP+ tRNA aminoacyl-tRA + AMP and PP( diphosphate0 ... 2 GTp are also used
392
How does a negative inducible operon work
A repressor binds and a basal transcripton rate of approximately zero occurs, and to increase trnascription there needs to be an addition of an inducer protein
393
What is a protooncogene
Protoconcogens do not necessaily exhibit either a greater or lesser rate of transcription in cancer patience, It is the activated form of protooncogene , an oncogene, that related closely to tumro growth and metastsis.
394
Define the following snRNa, hnRnA, tRNA, and snoRNA
SnRNA or small nuclear RnA is found in the nucleous, and aid in the splicing of preMRNA.....hnRNA is an alternative name for premRNA. Not only is this type of nucleic acid found in the nucleous it also codes for peptide products. ...tRNa is found in the cytoplasm and carries the amino acid. .....SnoRNA is small nucleolar RNA or SnoRNa are involved in the modification of rRNA. They are locaer in the nucleolus where some ribosomes are assembled
395
What does the term " wild type refer to
Wild tpe refers to the trait an animal typically possesses when found in nature. This usually rfers to a dominant trait but not always .
396
What is genetic drift
Unlike natural selection, genetric drift happens through random process and is one of the basic processes of evolution. Genetic drift is simply the change in allele frequiencies due to the randm processes. Specifically, random chance plays a role in determingn which aleles are inherited by offsprn fro mtheir parents. Genetric drift doesn not increase a populations genetic diversity and is not related to the indtroduction of new alleles as mutation is
397
What is the difference between incomplete and co ominance
incomplete dominance is blending. Codominance is for blood type and have two separeate alleles expressed at the same time
398
What is characteristic of X linked inheritence
the fact that more males than females express this trait; also another indication is that males never sem to inherit it from their fathers
399
What is a missense mutation
A missense mutation involved the mutation of one amino acid int oanouther withougt a frameshift
400
What is sympatric speciation
sympatric speciation is that which occrs without a physical barries. a population that diverges two separat species in a single cave ceertainly falls under this form of speciatiom. Parapatric speciation occurs when segments of two distinct populations overlap. Due to environmsnal differences these segments may develop into two species but indiviudals in the overlapping areas can typislly still interbred . Allopartic speciation occurs when popultions or parts ofthe same population are separated by a physical barrier. Peripartic speciation is a subtype of the concept that occurs specially when one of the two population is much smaller than th other
401
What are the stop codons
UAG,UAA,UGA
402
What does the bainstem control
All automatic functions examples are breathign and heart rate
403
What type of hormone is thyriod hormone
thyriod hormone, thyrios hormone cannot go across the membrane even though it is lipiphilic( nonpolar) this is because the o position makes the phenolic oH grouo more acidic resuting in a megative charge at physiologica pH
404
Where are antibodies synthesized
antiobodes are synthesized in B cells. B cells are produced in the bone marrow and terminally differentiate into plasma cells in the lymph nodes
405
What hormones are made in the liver
Fatyy acid and sterol synthess includign the sthesis of cholesterol and cholesterol dervied steriod hormones occur in the liver.
406
What are the histone subunits
H1, H2A, H2B, H3 and H4 - H2b and H2A are the two dimers and a tetramer f H3 And H4 while H1 is a linking unit. @00 base pirs can wound around a histone and the complex formed by DNA and hisone is known as a nucleosome
407
What is elastin
provides elasticity to connective tissue
408
What is collagen
Main protein that makes up connective tissue; connective tissue makes up skin joints
409
What is keratin
intermediate filament that gives skin its strength
410
What is actin
mostly inside cell, example muscle constration
411
How does the initial filtration step in the glomerulus of the mammalian kideny occur
by the passive flow due to the pressure difference. The Initial filtrationin the glomerulus as blood pressure forces the fluid from the glomerulus into the lumn of the bowman's cpsule
412
What is the function of glucocorticoids
glucocorticiods are steriod hormones. THey suppress immune responses, act on the skeletal muscle causing the breakdown of muscle proteins.
413
How are the endocrine and nervous sytem linked
Through the intimate connection between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland
414
Can inhibiting an enzyme effect the Keq
no
415
What is the difference between the reaction quotient and equilibrium constant
the equilibrium constant cant change but the reaction quoient can which changes delta g
416
What are some ways enzymes act
increase steric probblity , temporary storage of energy in high energy compounds to promote endergonic mechanism... they dont increas the temp around the reaction
417
What cyclic AMP is formed what is the result
pyrophosphae
418
How many molecules of ATP are typically spet i nthe beginning of gylcolysis
2 to attach two phosphate groups and four are generated in the second half of gylcolysis ( 2 for each 3 caron unit)>.
419
What is the difference between endocrine and exocrine glands
excrine glands secrete there products through ducts and endocrine secrete through blood
420
What is the equivalent of a ovum
spermatozoa
421
Sympatric speciation
speciation not due to physical barries
422
What is directional selction
more extreme phenotype is favored
423
What is genetic bottlenecking
reduction in size of population due to environmental event or human activites
424
What is allopartic speciation
because of physicl barries
425
What is leakage
when a gene from one species flows into another
426
What is incompleate penetrace
reflects the portion of individuals that express a trait and carry the allele for it
427
What is ubiquination
Ubiquination targets a protein for degration by a proteasome
428
What ae microglia
Macrophages in cna
429
What are astrocytes
gilial of CNA
430
What is pCr's purpose
amplify a single copy or a few copies of a segment of DNA
431
What is a prion
a prion is an abnormally folded protein that induces a normally folded protein to take its structure. This is deleterious
432
What is actin
aids in the movement of motor proteins such a myosins movement along microfilaments
433
Where are sperm produced
in the semiferous tubles of the testes and complete maturaton and becomes motile in the pidiymis
434
How do cytotoxic t lymphocytes work
Cytotoxic t lymphocyrs target viruc infected cells by recognizing the viral atigen resent o nthe cell surfact
435
What does atp do in muscle contraction
Breaks the bond between actin and myosin; so it is actually involved in relaxation
436
What are signaling sequences
signla sequence domains are proten domains required to proteins that are directed toward secretory pathways
437
Where does dimerization happen
in the transmembrane
438
What is affinity chromatography
it is based on separate proteins based on their interactions with specfic ligands
439
What is the catlytic efficiency
kcat/ Km
440
What i Kcat
the turnover number
441
What is phosphoglucnate
a substrate of the pentose phosphate pathwya
442
What is southern blotting
to detect a particular sequence in a sample of DNa
