CHP4-5: Neural basis of learning and memory + Models to explain learning AOS2

Question 1

Neural plasticity

Answer 1

The ability of structures in the brain to physically change in response to learning and experiences.

Question 2

Synaptic plasticity

Answer 2

A type of neural plasticity that refers to the ability of synaptic connections to form, strengthen, or weaken in response to activity and experience.

Question 3

Memory trace

Answer 3

The resulting structure when neural pathways form in response to learning and create a new memory. This refers to memories having a physical structural basis.

Question 4

Long-term potentiation

Answer 4

The long-lasting strengthening or increase of synaptic connections through high-frequency stimulation of the synaptic pathway resulting in enhanced or more effective synaptic transmission.

Question 5

Long-term depression

Answer 5

The long-lasting decrease in strength of the synaptic transmission caused due to the suboptimal or low-intensity stimulation of post-synaptic neurons, causing a memory trace or neural pathway to weaken.

Question 6

What does long-term potentiation result in?

Answer 6

Increased efficacy of neural transmission, making the transfer of neural messages quicker and more effective.

Question 7

What does long-term depression result in?

Answer 7

The weakening of a specific memory trace or neural connection and a decreased efficiency of neural transmission.

Question 8

Learning

Answer 8

A relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience.

Question 9

Memory

Answer 9

An active information processing system that encodes, stores and recovers information.

Question 10

Synaptogenesis

Answer 10

The formation of a synapse between neurons.

Question 11

Muscle memory

Answer 11

Your neurons are wired to do something in a streamlined way to make it easier to do something in a perfected way.

Question 12

Neurohormone

Answer 12

A chemical substance sent from neurons into the bloodstream.

Question 13

What are 2 key differences between neurotransmitters and neurohormones?

Answer 13

Neurotransmitters are sent directly adjacent to other neurons, and can act as either excitatory or inhibitory whereas neurohormones are released into the bloodstream before being carried to other neurons and cells, and neurohormones don’t have an excitatory or inhibitory distinction.

Question 14

Explain the importance of glutamate in learning and memory

Answer 14

Glutamate plays an essential role in encouraging long-term potentiation during learning. The presence of glutamate helps to create the necessary structural foundations of new memories that are consolidated during learning.

Question 15

Explain the importance of adrenaline (epinephrine) in learning and memory

Answer 15

It has an important role in the consolidation of emotionally arousing experiences due to adrenaline being released in times of emotional arousal, activating the brain regions responsible for consolidating emotional experiences in long-term memory.

As adrenaline (epinephrine) the neurohormone is released, it stimulates the release of noradrenaline (norepinephrine) which activates the amygdala. The amygdala is primarily responsible for the consolidation of emotional memories and works with the hippocampus to consolidate these memories in long-term memory.

Question 16

Classical conditioning

Answer 16

A simple form of learning which occurs through the repeated association of two different stimuli to produce a naturally occurring response.

Question 17

Neutral stimulus (NS)

Answer 17

A stimulus that does not initially elicit a naturally occurring response.

Question 18

Unconditioned response (UCR)

Answer 18

A natural, unlearned reaction to the presentation of an unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

Question 19

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Answer 19

Something that is presented that, when repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus, produces a conditioned response.

Question 20

Conditioned response (CR)

Answer 20

A response caused by a conditioned stimulus.

Question 21

Acquisition

Answer 21

The period of initial learning in classical conditioning is in which the learner begins to associate a neutral stimulus (NS) with eh unconditioned stimulus (UCS) so that it will begin to elicit the conditioned response (CR).

Question 22

Extinction

Answer 22

The disappearance of a conditions response (CR) following a lack of pairing of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) with the conditioned stimulus (CS).

Question 23

Spontaneous recovery

Answer 23

Following extinction and a rest period, the conditioned response (CR) reappears at the presentation of the conditioned stimulus (CS).

Question 24

Stimulus generalisation

Answer 24

A process in which the learner demonstrates the conditioned response (CR) to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Question 25

Stimulus discrimination

Answer 25

It involves the ability to distinguish between one stimulus and similar stimuli. the learner demonstrates the conditioned response (CR) only to certain stimuli, and does not respond to those that are similar.

Question 26

Conditioned emotional responses

Answer 26

The learner shows an involuntary emotional response to a stimulus that is not otherwise naturally occurring, learned through the process of classical conditioning.

Question 27

Operant conditioning

Answer 27

A type of learning in which behaviour is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

Question 28

Antecedent

Answer 28

The stimulus (object or event) that causes a voluntary behaviour to occur.

Question 29

Behavior

Answer 29

The voluntary action occurs in the presence of the antecedent stimulus.

Question 30

Consequence

Answer 30

The event that occurs immediately after the behaviour and has an effect on the occurrence of the behaviour.

Question 31

Reinforcement

Answer 31

A type of consequence that makes the behaviour more likely to occur again.

Question 32

Punishment

Answer 32

A type of consequence that makes the behaviour less likely to occur again.

Question 33

Positive reinforcement

Answer 33

The addition of a desirable consequence that increases or encourages the likelihood of the repetition of behaviour.

Question 34

Negative reinforcement

Answer 34

The subtraction of an undesirable stimulus to produce a desirable outcome, increasing the likelihood of a repetition of behaviour.

Question 35

Reinforcer

Answer 35

Any stimulus that strengthens or increases the frequency of a response that follows it.

Question 36

Positive punishment

Answer 36

The addition of an unwanted stimulus to discourage the frequency of this behaviour.

Question 37

Response cost

Answer 37

The removal of a desirable stimulus, also referred to as a response cost as the leaner’s response comes at the cost of something they desire.

Question 38

Describe extinction in the context of operant conditioning

Answer 38

Occurs when the behaviour is not shown despite the presence of the antecedent.

Question 39

Describe spontaneous recovery in the context of operant conditioning

Answer 39

Occurs when a learned behaviour reappears in the presence of an antecedent after a period of extinction.

Question 40

Describe stimulus discrimination in the context of operant conditioning

Answer 40

Occurs when a behaviour does not occur in the presence of an antecedent similar to the one present when the behaviour was first learned.

Question 41

Describe stimulus generalisation in the context of operant conditioning

Answer 41

Occurs when a behaviour occurs in a similar context with a similar stimulus (though not identical) to the original stimulus in hopes that, that behaviour will be reinforced, and receive a similar consequence.

Question 42

Observational conditioning

Answer 42

A type of learning that occurs through watching the actions of a model and the consequences that their actions receive, to guide our future behaviour.

Question 43

Model

Answer 43

The individual who is performing the behaviour that is being watched or observed.

Question 44

List the five stages of observational learning

Answer 44

Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation, and reinforcement.

Question 45

Intrinsic motivation

Answer 45

Motivation that is driven by internal rewards.

Question 46

Extrinsic motivation

Answer 46

Motivation that is driven by external rewards.

Question 47

Self-reinforcement

Answer 47

Reinforcement through factors that are internal to the learner.

Question 48

External reinforcement

Answer 48

Reinforcement through factors that are external to the learner.

Question 49

Vicarious reinforcement

Answer 49

Reinforcement through the indirect observation of the consequence of another’s behaviour can influence the learner’s motivation and increase the likelihood of the learner demonstrating the behaviour despite not experiencing the reinforcement directly.

Question 50

Attention

Answer 50

The first stage involves the learner actively paying attention and focussing on the details of the actions of the model.

Question 51

Retention

Answer 51

In the second stage, the learner is remembering, and storing the information that they have just observed as a mental representation within the relevant brain structures for the learner to access later.

Question 52

Reproduction

Answer 52

The third stage requires the learner to have both mental and physical capabilities to reproduce and replicate the behaviour.

Question 53

Motivation

Answer 53

The fourth stage involves the learner having the desire and motivation to perform the behaviour. This motivation can either be intrinsic (within) such as drive or desire to do so, or extrinsic (external) such as a reward for doing well.

Question 54

Reinforcement

Answer 54

Once the learner has successfully performed the behaviour, the final stage involves the learner receiving the consequence of reinforcement which increases the likelihood the learner will repeat the behaviour if a positive outcome is obtained.

Question 55

List the two types of motivation, and three types of reinforcement supported by the social theories five stages

Answer 55

Self-reinforcement, external and vicarious reinforcement AND intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.