Choice Unit B

Question 1

Define the term Personality

Answer 1

Those relatively stable and enduring aspects of individuals which distinguish them from other people, making them unique but at the same time permit a comparison between individuals. [Gross 1992]

*Validity and sophistication of personality studies are consistently questioned

Question 2

Discuss Social Learning Theory

Answer 2

• In direct contrast to trait theory, proposes that all behavior is learned.
• Learning occurs by way of environmental experiences and through the influence of other people.
• Reductionist

Proposed by: Albert Bandura [1977]

Question 3

Discuss Trait Learning Theory

Answer 3

• Personality is determined by genetics
• There are two main dimensions to personality: An introversion – extroversion dimension and a stable–neurotic dimension
• Reductionist

Proposed by: Eysenck and Cattell

Question 4

Discuss Interactionist Learning Theory

Answer 4

• Combination of inherent personality traits and environmental factors
• Suggests strong situational factors, are more likely to predict behavior than personality traits

Proposed by: Kurt Lewin

Question 5

Outline the Role of our Genes

Answer 5

Emergenesis ⇒ A trait is emergenic if a specific combination of several genes interact. For this reason, emergenic traits will not run in families but identical twins will share them.

Epigenesis ⇒ The study of how and why genes interact with the environment. Non-genetic factors cause the organism’s genes to behave (or “express themselves”) differently.

Question 6

Outline the Pros and Cons of Personality Assessments

Answer 6

Questionnaires (self-judgement)
Pros:
- Cheap
- Lots of information
- Access to internal events
- Casual Force
Cons:
- Failure to disclose
- Unaware
- Cheap and easy - frequently used

Interviews
Pros:
- Real-world information
- Cheap
Cons:
- No access to private events
- Bias

Observations
Pros:
- Range of contexts
- Appearance of objectivity
Cons:
- Uncertain observations
- Can be costly
- Time-consuming

Question 7

Outline Ethical Issues with Personality Assessments

Answer 7

Confidentiality:
Use of results ⇒
- Explain use and give feedback - must give informed consent
- Do not use personality tests to decide who makes a team
- Can’t predict behavior in sports without considering other info

Predicting performance: use of results from personality data could be used to predict performance ⇒
- Compare individuals against their own baseline levels rather than against normative information

Question 8

Outline Validity and Reliability Issues in Personality Assessments

Answer 8

Athletes may fake/falsify responses/behaviors to conceal a perceived weakness (issues with validity and reliability)

Question 9

How do Team Sport Athletes Behave?

Answer 9

Exhibited less abstract reasoning, more extroversion, more dependency, and less ego strength than non-athletes.

Question 10

How do Individual Sport Athletes Behave?

Answer 10

Displayed higher levels of objectivity, less dependency, less anxiety, and less abstract thinking than non-athletes.

Question 11

Name some Ethical Issues with Personality Assesments

Answer 11

• Need to explain use and give feedback
• Need to give informed consent
• Should not be used when deciding who makes a team
• Can’t predict behavior in sports without considering other info
• Could be used to predict performance

Question 12

Define motivation and name the different types

Answer 12

Def. Motivation is “the internal mechanisms and external stimuli which arouse and direct our behavior”

Intrinsic motivation ⇒
- Comes from within the person
- Doing an activity for itself and for the pleasure and satisfaction associated with it
- Excitement, fun, enjoyment, chance to improve skills etc.

Extrinsic motivation ⇒
- Comes from outside the person.
- External rewards
- Tangible: Money, trophies, prizes
- Less Tangible: Praise, Status

Question 13

Explain Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Answer 13

Additive principle:
Intrinsic motivation can be boosted by extrinsic motivators

Finding: not always true
Cognitive evaluation theory (Deci and Ryan 1985) developed to explain this (This theory explains the effect of external consequences on internal motivation)

Question 14

Explain Atkinson’s model of Achievement Motivation

Answer 14

*Motivation is a balance between the motive to achieve success and the motive to avoid failure.

It sees achievement motivation as a personality trait ⇒
Those whose desire to succeed outweighs the fear of failure are said to be high in achievement motivation.
Those whose fear of failure outweighs the desire to succeed are said to be low on achievement motivation

Achievement Motivation = The Desire to Succeed – The Fear of Failure

Question 15

Differentiate between high and low achievers in Atkinson’s model of Achievement Motivation

Answer 15

High:
- Select challenging tasks
- Display a high level of effort
- Continue to try hard in difficult situations
- Focus on the pride of success

Low:
- Avoid challenging activities
- Exert less effort when they take part
- Exert less persistence when they take part
- Focus on the shame of failure

Question 16

What are the Components of Atkinson’s model

Answer 16

Personality factors: motive to achieve success, motive to avoid failure
Situational factors: probability of success, incentive value of success
Resultant tendencies: considering and individual’s achievement motive levels in relation to situational factors

Need to avoid failure (NAF) ⇒
A state of mind in which a performer avoids situations in which they think they might not be successful

Need to achieve (NACH) ⇒
The intrinsic motivation to be successful

Question 17

Differentiate between arousal and stress

Answer 17

Arousal -> is a state in which you feel excited or very alert, for example as a result of fear, stress, or anger. [The sympathetic nervous system closes down the non-essential physiological systems. They accelerate those fight or flight response systems.]

Stress -> Substantial imbalance between the demand (physical and/or psychological) and response capability, under conditions where failure to meet that demand has important consequences.

Question 18

Describe the Inverted U hypothesis

Answer 18

Implications ⇒ As arousal increases, so too does performance, up to an optimal point. Further increases in arousal cause performance to decline.

Limitations ⇒
- People have different levels of arousal to different stimuli
- Some performers don’t slowly
decrease

Question 19

Describe the drive reduction theory

Answer 19

Implications ⇒ As arousal increases, so too does performance

Explanation ⇒ Humans are motivated to reduce the state of tension caused when certain biological needs are not satisfied. This theory explains behaviours that have a strong biological Component. Example: you might be driven to drink a glass of water to reduce your sensationof thirst.

Limitations: little research to support this, athletes can perform poorly if overly aroused, people are not always motivated by internal needs.

Question 20

Describe the catastrophy theory

Answer 20

Implications ⇒ As arousal increases, so too does performance, up to an optimal point. Afterward, a rapid decline in performance - the catastrophe - occurs

Limitations: Difficult to study scientifically (graph
not modelled using data). This may not apply to everyone

General Note: There is an optimal level of CNS arousal for different types of tasks [easier tasks may require higher levels of arousal]

Question 21

Differentiate between arousal and anxiety

Answer 21

Arousal ->
- A measure of our energy level
- Physiological and psychological activity in a person
- Not automatically associated with pleasant or unpleasant events.

Anxiety ->
- Characterized by nervousness, worry, apprehension
- Negative emotional state
- Doesn’t necessarily affect performance negatively

Question 22

Name the types of anxiety

Answer 22

Cognitive Anxiety:
The worry component. A chain of negative thoughts and images that are relatively uncontrollable.

Somatic Anxiety:
The physical component. Awareness of physiological changes that provides a signal to the individual that they are anxious. Important to note that somatic anxiety and physiological arousal are similar, but NOT THE SAME.

E.g. a person experiences trembling and nausea may become more anxious because these symptoms are telling them they are experiencing anxiety.

State anxiety: The person’s emotional state at any given time - variable from situation to situation [Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2R)]

Trait anxiety: A person’s disposition to interpreting a situation as threatening and responding with an increase in state anxiety [Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT)]

*Athletes who have a high trait anxiety view more situations as more threatening than those with lower trait anxiety and so respond with a higher state anxiety. This is known as competitive trait anxiety

Question 23

Evaluate SCAT [Sport Competition Anxiety Test]

Answer 23

SCAT (Sport Competition Anxiety Test) ⇒
Is a self-report questionnaire in which people rate how nervous they
feel both in general and in specific situations.
The scoring system for the questions gives an indication of both
the state anxiety and the trait anxiety of the performer.

Pros:
Info can be used by coaches to reduce worry and build confidence before competitions
Reliable self-report survey
Sport specific measure of pre-competitive state anxiety

Cons:
Athletes react differently to competition - not a one size fits all - coaches
need to realize this
Can’t be given during competition
Social desirability: respondents may “manage” answers so they appear
in a more positive light

Question 24

What is Psychological Skills Training?

Answer 24

• Psychological Skills Training (PST) is an individually designed combination of methods selected to attain psychological skill needs.
• There is no single perfect PST package, each program must be individualized based on the psychological state of the individual and, the sport.

Question 25

Name the three phases of a PST program:

Answer 25

1) Educational Phase: This phase consists of the psychological skills being learned and practiced. It takes time to develop and refine these skills over time. It is used to clarify what psychological skills are, how they can be trained, what level of commitment is required, what improvements such training can bring.

2) Acquisition Phase: This phase is used to focus on strategies and techniques for learning the different psychological skills. This aspect of the training program needs to be tailored to meet the individuals needs.

3) Practice Phase: This phase consists of the transferring of psychological skill from practice and simulated situations to actual competitions. The focus should be on making the psychological skills automatic.

Question 26

Outline good goal setting

Answer 26

Process Goals: Deal with technique or strategy necessary to perform well. Individual has complete control.
Performance goals: Specify a specific standard to be achieved. Focused on achievement independent of other competitors.
Outcome goals: About winning or performing better than someone else. They refer to the desired end result. Focused on a competitive result.

[SMARTER goals]

Question 27

Describe Mental Imagery

Answer 27

*Mental imagery involves the athlete imagining themselves in an environment performing a specific activity using all of their senses (sight, hear, feel and smell). The images should have the athlete performing successfully and feeling satisfied with their performance.

Concepts:
The idea is that the body cannot distinguish between something that is really happening, and something that they are visualizing.
Associated with concentration enhancement, self-confidence, skill
acquisition, emotional control, practice strategy and coping with pain
and injury.

Internal Imagery ⇒ Visualising yourself as the person actually going through the motions. Allows you to have a keen awareness of how it feels to do things the correct way.

External imagery ⇒ (as if you are a spectator or watching a video of yourself) is good for error correction, this way you can see what it is you are actually doing wrong, as would your coach.

Question 28

Describe PETTLEP in regards to Mental Imagery

Answer 28

Question 29

What is Biofeedback?

Answer 29

*The use of instruments to measure physiological systems (e.g., heart rate, muscle activation, brain waves, skin temperature) and feed that information back to the athlete.

Ex.
- Brain waves [EEG]
- Breathing
- Heart rate

Question 30

Describe self talk

Answer 30

*(Hardy, Jones and Gould, 1998).

What is it?
Encourages the use of positive self talk and limit the use of negative self talk.

How is it done?
Recognizing negative thoughts and using strategies to turn them into positive thoughts.

Positive:
- motivational: keep performers focused and confident
- instructional: remind performer about technique

Negative:
- self critical
- remembers past events
- pessimistic
- can induce self-fulfilling prophecy

Question 31

TI vs. TD

Answer 31

Talent identification (TI) ⇒ in sport refers to the process of recognizing current athletes with potential for attaining expert performance (Vaeyens, Lenoir, Williams, & Philippaerts, 2008; Williams, 2000).

Talent development (TD) ⇒ on the other hand, concerns developing athletes into world-class performers through a series of intervention programs such as physical training. To pursuit excellence in sport, many sport organizations have either initiated and/or adopted TI/TD schemes (Abbott & Collins, 2004;
Baker & Schorer, 2010).

Question 32

Describe traditional TI

Answer 32

Subjective assessments

Objective assessments
- physiological (such as aerobic capacity, anaerobic power, speed and strength)
- anthropometric (such as height, weight, body composition)
- performance-based (such as skill and agility)

Question 33

Describe Multidimensional talent identification and development (TID)

Answer 33

*recognizes that talent also evolves as a result of an athlete actively interacting with the environment and having the resilience to cope with the challenges and setbacks they encounter.

Facilitation
- mental imagery
- realistic goal setting
- effective evaluation of performance/self-evaluation
- Self-reinforcement
- training to a high intensity (outside comfort zone)
- handling failure
- performance arousal and control.

Question 34

Evolution of talent for athlete development

Answer 34

*Bloom (1985) and Cote (1999) suggest that the four stages of development that an elite performer is likely to progress through are as follows;

1. Initiation stage: young athletes are introduced to organized sports and during which they are identified as talented athletes; lower amount of deliberate practice and higher amount of deliberate play. Practice is more coach or parent led. Involvement in several sports
2. Development stage: athletes become more dedicated to their sport and the amount of training and level of specialization are increased.
3. Mastery stage: which athletes reach their highest level of athletic proficiency. Practice is more athlete-led.
4. Maintenance (perfection) stage

Question 35

Describe Talent Transfer

Answer 35

Talent transfer: reduction or cessation of participation in one sport in order to pursue another sport that involves similar skills or physiological requirements
- It may be prompted by injury, a plateau in performance, loss of motivation, or retirement
- It may be initiated by the athlete or coordinated by a sporting organization
- It commonly prolongs an athlete’s sporting career and can lead to greater success than that in the first sport

Progress through the stages of development in the new sport is usually rapid because the athlete:
* has the capacity to use psychological behaviours to respond to challenges
* can exploit existing physiological traits and motor skills
* has improved motivation.

Question 36

Describe Self-determination theory (SDT)

Answer 36

*Self-determination theory (SDT) describes how the level and the amount of energy that athletes devote to learning activities is a dynamic continuum characterized by a balance between:

Autonomy ⇒ Making one’s own decisions about what we do and being in control of ourselves and our behaviors (for example, training because you want to, not because someone says you should)

Competence ⇒ Feeling able to accomplish a task (for example, completing a cross country run without having to stop for a rest)

Relatedness ⇒ The feeling of a shared experience with others, of belonging
to and being accepted by a group (for example, being part of a basketball
team)

[Addresses extrinsic and intrinsic motivation]

Question 37

Describe Self-regulated learning (SRL)

Answer 37

• Refers to the processes that assist learners in managing their own thoughts, behaviours and emotions in order to control their own learning experiences.
• Encourages athletes to become more independent in their learning and so enhances learning outcomes.
  [Athletes exert this control by planning and regulating their own actions towards their learning goals.]

Question 38

Describe the Relationship between self-regulated learning and motivation in sports

Answer 38

Four interdependent cyclical phases through which an athlete manages their progression:
1. Forethought phase (goal-setting and planning)
2. Monitoring phase (tracking progress and awareness of current performance in relation to goals)
3. Control phase (adapting learning strategies to better complete the task)
4. Reflection phase (evaluating performance with respect to goals and the effectiveness of the chosen strategy)

[Self-reflections influence athletes’ future planning/goals, prompting the
cycle to begin again]

*Proposed by Pintrich 2000

Question 39

Describe the Zimmerman Model

Answer 39

Performance Phase:
- Self control -> Self instruction, Imagery, Attention focusing, Task strategies
- Self observation -> Self monitoring

Self Reflection Phase:
- Self Judgment -> Self-Evaluation, Casual Attribution
- Self-Reaction -> Self-satisfaction/affect, Adaptive Interferences

Forethought Phase:
- Task Analysis -> Goal Setting, Strategic Planning
- Motivational Beliefs -> Self-efficacy, Outcome Expectations, Intrinsic Interest, Goal Orientation