Choice Unit B Flashcards
Define the term Personality
Those relatively stable and enduring aspects of individuals which distinguish them from other people, making them unique but at the same time permit a comparison between individuals. [Gross 1992]
*Validity and sophistication of personality studies are consistently questioned
Discuss Social Learning Theory
- In direct contrast to trait theory, proposes that all behavior is learned.
- Learning occurs by way of environmental experiences and through the influence of other people.
- Reductionist
Proposed by: Albert Bandura [1977]
Discuss Trait Learning Theory
- Personality is determined by genetics
- There are two main dimensions to personality: An introversion – extroversion dimension and a stable–neurotic dimension
- Reductionist
Proposed by: Eysenck and Cattell
Discuss Interactionist Learning Theory
- Combination of inherent personality traits and environmental factors
- Suggests strong situational factors, are more likely to predict behavior than personality traits
Proposed by: Kurt Lewin
Outline the Role of our Genes
Emergenesis ⇒ A trait is emergenic if a specific combination of several genes interact. For this reason, emergenic traits will not run in families but identical twins will share them.
Epigenesis ⇒ The study of how and why genes interact with the environment. Non-genetic factors cause the organism’s genes to behave (or “express themselves”) differently.
Outline the Pros and Cons of Personality Assessments
Questionnaires (self-judgement)
Pros:
- Cheap
- Lots of information
- Access to internal events
- Casual Force
Cons:
- Failure to disclose
- Unaware
- Cheap and easy - frequently used
Interviews
Pros:
- Real-world information
- Cheap
Cons:
- No access to private events
- Bias
Observations
Pros:
- Range of contexts
- Appearance of objectivity
Cons:
- Uncertain observations
- Can be costly
- Time-consuming
Outline Ethical Issues with Personality Assessments
Confidentiality:
Use of results ⇒
- Explain use and give feedback - must give informed consent
- Do not use personality tests to decide who makes a team
- Can’t predict behavior in sports without considering other info
Predicting performance: use of results from personality data could be used to predict performance ⇒
- Compare individuals against their own baseline levels rather than against normative information
Outline Validity and Reliability Issues in Personality Assessments
Athletes may fake/falsify responses/behaviors to conceal a perceived weakness (issues with validity and reliability)
How do Team Sport Athletes Behave?
Exhibited less abstract reasoning, more extroversion, more dependency, and less ego strength than non-athletes.
How do Individual Sport Athletes Behave?
Displayed higher levels of objectivity, less dependency, less anxiety, and less abstract thinking than non-athletes.
Name some Ethical Issues with Personality Assesments
- Need to explain use and give feedback
- Need to give informed consent
- Should not be used when deciding who makes a team
- Can’t predict behavior in sports without considering other info
- Could be used to predict performance
Define motivation and name the different types
Def. Motivation is “the internal mechanisms and external stimuli which arouse and direct our behavior”
Intrinsic motivation ⇒
- Comes from within the person
- Doing an activity for itself and for the pleasure and satisfaction associated with it
- Excitement, fun, enjoyment, chance to improve skills etc.
Extrinsic motivation ⇒
- Comes from outside the person.
- External rewards
- Tangible: Money, trophies, prizes
- Less Tangible: Praise, Status
Explain Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Additive principle:
Intrinsic motivation can be boosted by extrinsic motivators
Finding: not always true
Cognitive evaluation theory (Deci and Ryan 1985) developed to explain this (This theory explains the effect of external consequences on internal motivation)
Explain Atkinson’s model of Achievement Motivation
*Motivation is a balance between the motive to achieve success and the motive to avoid failure.
It sees achievement motivation as a personality trait ⇒
Those whose desire to succeed outweighs the fear of failure are said to be high in achievement motivation.
Those whose fear of failure outweighs the desire to succeed are said to be low on achievement motivation
Achievement Motivation = The Desire to Succeed – The Fear of Failure
Differentiate between high and low achievers in Atkinson’s model of Achievement Motivation
High:
- Select challenging tasks
- Display a high level of effort
- Continue to try hard in difficult situations
- Focus on the pride of success
Low:
- Avoid challenging activities
- Exert less effort when they take part
- Exert less persistence when they take part
- Focus on the shame of failure
What are the Components of Atkinson’s model
Personality factors: motive to achieve success, motive to avoid failure
Situational factors: probability of success, incentive value of success
Resultant tendencies: considering and individual’s achievement motive levels in relation to situational factors
Need to avoid failure (NAF) ⇒
A state of mind in which a performer avoids situations in which they think they might not be successful
Need to achieve (NACH) ⇒
The intrinsic motivation to be successful
Differentiate between arousal and stress
Arousal -> is a state in which you feel excited or very alert, for example as a result of fear, stress, or anger. [The sympathetic nervous system closes down the non-essential physiological systems. They accelerate those fight or flight response systems.]
Stress -> Substantial imbalance between the demand (physical and/or psychological) and response capability, under conditions where failure to meet that demand has important consequences.
Describe the Inverted U hypothesis
Implications ⇒ As arousal increases, so too does performance, up to an optimal point. Further increases in arousal cause performance to decline.
Limitations ⇒
- People have different levels of arousal to different stimuli
- Some performers don’t slowly
decrease
Describe the drive reduction theory
Implications ⇒ As arousal increases, so too does performance
Explanation ⇒ Humans are motivated to reduce the state of tension caused when certain biological needs are not satisfied. This theory explains behaviours that have a strong biological Component. Example: you might be driven to drink a glass of water to reduce your sensationof thirst.
Limitations: little research to support this, athletes can perform poorly if overly aroused, people are not always motivated by internal needs.
Describe the catastrophy theory
Implications ⇒ As arousal increases, so too does performance, up to an optimal point. Afterward, a rapid decline in performance - the catastrophe - occurs
Limitations: Difficult to study scientifically (graph
not modelled using data). This may not apply to everyone
General Note: There is an optimal level of CNS arousal for different types of tasks [easier tasks may require higher levels of arousal]
Differentiate between arousal and anxiety
Arousal ->
- A measure of our energy level
- Physiological and psychological activity in a person
- Not automatically associated with pleasant or unpleasant events.
Anxiety ->
- Characterized by nervousness, worry, apprehension
- Negative emotional state
- Doesn’t necessarily affect performance negatively
Name the types of anxiety
Cognitive Anxiety:
The worry component. A chain of negative thoughts and images that are relatively uncontrollable.
Somatic Anxiety:
The physical component. Awareness of physiological changes that provides a signal to the individual that they are anxious. Important to note that somatic anxiety and physiological arousal are similar, but NOT THE SAME.
E.g. a person experiences trembling and nausea may become more anxious because these symptoms are telling them they are experiencing anxiety.
State anxiety: The person’s emotional state at any given time - variable from situation to situation [Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2R)]
Trait anxiety: A person’s disposition to interpreting a situation as threatening and responding with an increase in state anxiety [Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT)]
*Athletes who have a high trait anxiety view more situations as more threatening than those with lower trait anxiety and so respond with a higher state anxiety. This is known as competitive trait anxiety
Evaluate SCAT [Sport Competition Anxiety Test]
SCAT (Sport Competition Anxiety Test) ⇒
Is a self-report questionnaire in which people rate how nervous they
feel both in general and in specific situations.
The scoring system for the questions gives an indication of both
the state anxiety and the trait anxiety of the performer.
Pros:
Info can be used by coaches to reduce worry and build confidence before competitions
Reliable self-report survey
Sport specific measure of pre-competitive state anxiety
Cons:
Athletes react differently to competition - not a one size fits all - coaches
need to realize this
Can’t be given during competition
Social desirability: respondents may “manage” answers so they appear
in a more positive light
What is Psychological Skills Training?
- Psychological Skills Training (PST) is an individually designed combination of methods selected to attain psychological skill needs.
- There is no single perfect PST package, each program must be individualized based on the psychological state of the individual and, the sport.
Name the three phases of a PST program:
1) Educational Phase: This phase consists of the psychological skills being learned and practiced. It takes time to develop and refine these skills over time. It is used to clarify what psychological skills are, how they can be trained, what level of commitment is required, what improvements such training can bring.
2) Acquisition Phase: This phase is used to focus on strategies and techniques for learning the different psychological skills. This aspect of the training program needs to be tailored to meet the individuals needs.
3) Practice Phase: This phase consists of the transferring of psychological skill from practice and simulated situations to actual competitions. The focus should be on making the psychological skills automatic.
Outline good goal setting
Process Goals: Deal with technique or strategy necessary to perform well. Individual has complete control.
Performance goals: Specify a specific standard to be achieved. Focused on achievement independent of other competitors.
Outcome goals: About winning or performing better than someone else. They refer to the desired end result. Focused on a competitive result.
[SMARTER goals]
Describe Mental Imagery
*Mental imagery involves the athlete imagining themselves in an environment performing a specific activity using all of their senses (sight, hear, feel and smell). The images should have the athlete performing successfully and feeling satisfied with their performance.
Concepts:
The idea is that the body cannot distinguish between something that is really happening, and something that they are visualizing.
Associated with concentration enhancement, self-confidence, skill
acquisition, emotional control, practice strategy and coping with pain
and injury.
Internal Imagery ⇒ Visualising yourself as the person actually going through the motions. Allows you to have a keen awareness of how it feels to do things the correct way.
External imagery ⇒ (as if you are a spectator or watching a video of yourself) is good for error correction, this way you can see what it is you are actually doing wrong, as would your coach.
Describe PETTLEP in regards to Mental Imagery
What is Biofeedback?
*The use of instruments to measure physiological systems (e.g., heart rate, muscle activation, brain waves, skin temperature) and feed that information back to the athlete.
Ex.
- Brain waves [EEG]
- Breathing
- Heart rate
Describe self talk
*(Hardy, Jones and Gould, 1998).
What is it?
Encourages the use of positive self talk and limit the use of negative self talk.
How is it done?
Recognizing negative thoughts and using strategies to turn them into positive thoughts.
Positive:
- motivational: keep performers focused and confident
- instructional: remind performer about technique
Negative:
- self critical
- remembers past events
- pessimistic
- can induce self-fulfilling prophecy
TI vs. TD
Talent identification (TI) ⇒ in sport refers to the process of recognizing current athletes with potential for attaining expert performance (Vaeyens, Lenoir, Williams, & Philippaerts, 2008; Williams, 2000).
Talent development (TD) ⇒ on the other hand, concerns developing athletes into world-class performers through a series of intervention programs such as physical training. To pursuit excellence in sport, many sport organizations have either initiated and/or adopted TI/TD schemes (Abbott & Collins, 2004;
Baker & Schorer, 2010).
Describe traditional TI
Subjective assessments
Objective assessments
- physiological (such as aerobic capacity, anaerobic power, speed and strength)
- anthropometric (such as height, weight, body composition)
- performance-based (such as skill and agility)
Describe Multidimensional talent identification and development (TID)
*recognizes that talent also evolves as a result of an athlete actively interacting with the environment and having the resilience to cope with the challenges and setbacks they encounter.
Facilitation
- mental imagery
- realistic goal setting
- effective evaluation of performance/self-evaluation
- Self-reinforcement
- training to a high intensity (outside comfort zone)
- handling failure
- performance arousal and control.
Evolution of talent for athlete development
*Bloom (1985) and Cote (1999) suggest that the four stages of development that an elite performer is likely to progress through are as follows;
- Initiation stage: young athletes are introduced to organized sports and during which they are identified as talented athletes; lower amount of deliberate practice and higher amount of deliberate play. Practice is more coach or parent led. Involvement in several sports
- Development stage: athletes become more dedicated to their sport and the amount of training and level of specialization are increased.
- Mastery stage: which athletes reach their highest level of athletic proficiency. Practice is more athlete-led.
- Maintenance (perfection) stage
Describe Talent Transfer
Talent transfer: reduction or cessation of participation in one sport in order to pursue another sport that involves similar skills or physiological requirements
- It may be prompted by injury, a plateau in performance, loss of motivation, or retirement
- It may be initiated by the athlete or coordinated by a sporting organization
- It commonly prolongs an athlete’s sporting career and can lead to greater success than that in the first sport
Progress through the stages of development in the new sport is usually rapid because the athlete:
* has the capacity to use psychological behaviours to respond to challenges
* can exploit existing physiological traits and motor skills
* has improved motivation.
Describe Self-determination theory (SDT)
*Self-determination theory (SDT) describes how the level and the amount of energy that athletes devote to learning activities is a dynamic continuum characterized by a balance between:
Autonomy ⇒ Making one’s own decisions about what we do and being in control of ourselves and our behaviors (for example, training because you want to, not because someone says you should)
Competence ⇒ Feeling able to accomplish a task (for example, completing a cross country run without having to stop for a rest)
Relatedness ⇒ The feeling of a shared experience with others, of belonging
to and being accepted by a group (for example, being part of a basketball
team)
[Addresses extrinsic and intrinsic motivation]
Describe Self-regulated learning (SRL)
- Refers to the processes that assist learners in managing their own thoughts, behaviours and emotions in order to control their own learning experiences.
- Encourages athletes to become more independent in their learning and so enhances learning outcomes.
[Athletes exert this control by planning and regulating their own actions towards their learning goals.]
Describe the Relationship between self-regulated learning and motivation in sports
Four interdependent cyclical phases through which an athlete manages their progression:
1. Forethought phase (goal-setting and planning)
2. Monitoring phase (tracking progress and awareness of current performance in relation to goals)
3. Control phase (adapting learning strategies to better complete the task)
4. Reflection phase (evaluating performance with respect to goals and the effectiveness of the chosen strategy)
[Self-reflections influence athletes’ future planning/goals, prompting the
cycle to begin again]
*Proposed by Pintrich 2000
Describe the Zimmerman Model
Performance Phase:
- Self control -> Self instruction, Imagery, Attention focusing, Task strategies
- Self observation -> Self monitoring
Self Reflection Phase:
- Self Judgment -> Self-Evaluation, Casual Attribution
- Self-Reaction -> Self-satisfaction/affect, Adaptive Interferences
Forethought Phase:
- Task Analysis -> Goal Setting, Strategic Planning
- Motivational Beliefs -> Self-efficacy, Outcome Expectations, Intrinsic Interest, Goal Orientation
