Child Flashcards
what is child psychology?
its concerned with understanding the development of human behaviour from before birth, through childhood, adolescence and into adulthood. it explores how experiences in childhood affect later adult development. it focuses on how children develop
what is considered to fall under childrens development?
- development of cognitiion
- moral development
- social behvaiour
- emotional behaviour –> role of attachment infancy and later development
what questions should be considered in child psychology?
- why do children attach to a caregiver?
- do these attchment types differ between children?
- whats the possible impact of disruptions to this attachment on later adult development?
how were children viewed historically?
as ‘mini adults’ whos brains worked in the exact same way
what is attachment?
a close, emotional bond t between chld and caregiver
why is attachment necessary?
it promotes proximity between child and caregiver in order to provide safety and security
what is deprivation?
a loss of an attachment that has been formed
what is privation?
an absence of attachment, an attachment that has never been formed
when does privation occur?
when a child is extremely neglected or in a situation where a caregiver is unable to bond with
what are rules about overt / covert observations regarding child psychology?
child may know or not know they are being observed.
the observation must be overt in the sense that a parent/legal guardian does know their child is part of a psychological study
how could a child psychology observation be participant?
when the adult, rather than getting involved themselves by being one of the children, joins the school class as a TA. they can part but not the same as joint participation.
how can demand characteristics affect children?
the effects of being in an artificial environment depends on the childs age. younger children dont notice.
whats the rules concerning gaining consent in child psychology?
its not okay to observe children in public places. you always need consent to observe children from parents
how can a questionnaire be adapated to children?
- key information in capitals, bold or underlined
- clear, step by step
- simple language and phrasing
- short questions and overall length
- closed qustions
what precautions with interviewing children must be taken?
- need training
- must ensure extra care is taken
- interviews must be shorter as children have shorter attention span
- need to adjust their languauge to suit younger more vulnerable group
- may need to record it and transcribe the interview to seek out common denominators of research interest
how can the intereview effect have an impact on children in interviwes?
the appearance of interviewer and other characteristics (e.g. gender) could influence the way the child responds to questions, depending on topic.
how may demand characteristics impact children in interviews?
they may pick up on suble cues the intervierwe may give as to what and how they want to find out from interviewees. participants may then alter their responses to conform to these percieved expectations and this will have a profound influence on results obtained.
what must be gained before research with children?
parental informed consent
when must you get parental consent?
before carrying out any observations or gaining any information
why isnt a childs consent the same as an adults consent?
because of their comprehenson hevel and vulnerability and age
can children withdraw from a study?
they have a right to withdraw and researchers should have the competence to enforce this withdrawal if they think the child is experiencing difficulties.
parents also have the right to withdraw their child.
when can children be decieved?
when justifiable deceit has been supported by colleagues.
otherwise they should be allowed to ask questions and be fuly informed.
when is information not confidential in children studies?
never
what should happen if information disclosed by the study that affects the child well-being?
it must be referred to an expert who may follow this up with parents.
what shouldnt be offered in exchange for participation?
incentives like sweets or toys
what ethical guidelines should be adhered to in child research?
general ethical guidelines for use wth humans
what guidlines are particularly umportant where children are concerned?
protection from harm, informed consent, confidentiality, decepetion
what is a priority during child research?
their safety and emotional state
what is the uncrc
united nations convention on the rights of the child.
it offers guidelines as to what countries should do to ensure children grow up as healthy as possible, learn at school, are protected, have their views istened to and are treated fairly.
any child research should adhere to this.convention on the rights of the child.
what is the background to our child practical?
looking at adult attachment theory/reationships and seeing if its different to mother child relationships.
are a persons adult relationships affected by early attachment experiences?
what was the aim of our child practical?
to investigate whether early caregiving has an effect on romantic relationships in adulthood
what are the variables of out child practical? how did we operationalise them?
- adult relationship using a questionnaire –> Experiences in close relationships scale: short form (ECR-S)
- attachement style using questionnaire –> Descriptions of parental caregiving style (Hazan and Shaver 1987)
what was the hypothesis of our child practical?
You will be significantly more likely to show a secure adult attachment style if your childhood relationship with caregiver was warm.
what is the target population of our child practical?
adults in a relationship (opportunity sample)
how can we analyse data in our child hypothesis?
- test of difference, nominal, independent groups = chi-squared.
what is the conclusion of our child practical?
in conclusion, we accept the research hypothesis that a person will be significantly more likely to show a secure adult attachment style if their childhood relatioship with caregiver is warm. this can be linked to Bowlbys work on attachment. he suggests a baby forms a special bond with one person (monotropy) and this can impact their attachment to others later in life, formed due to natural selection.
what are the results of our child practical?
for a chi squared test, a one tailed hypothesis, df = 1 and p<0.01, the critical value is 5.02. our observed value of chi was 13.03. since the observed value is greater than the critical value the results are significant at the p<0.01 level. consequently, we reject the null hypothesis and accept the research hypothesis. as such, people who describe their childhood relationship with their caregiver as warm are significantly more likely to show a secure adult attachment style.
describe the construct validity of our child psychology practical
- parental caregiving question (even though it was anonymous) it was incredibily direct.
- the participants may baulk at answering the questions honestly.
- or they may be in a state of denial.
- ecr-s has much more subtely worded questions and so is much less likely to cause SDB ~(although not immune)
describe the ecological validity of our child psychology practical
- self report is an unnatural way to measure people’s behaviour in relationships.
- covert observation of a persons habits in relationships, with their consent, is much more likely to give a realistic, real-life idea of their romatic attachemnt style
describe the population validity of our child psychology practical
- most students tested their parents .
- if you are a sixth form student you are by definition, educationally successful, and its easier to be educationally successful if your home life is stable, and home life is more likely to be stable if your parents are together and securely attached
- as such, we would expect secure attachment types to be over represented in our sample.
- 65% is what we’d expect (we had 79%)
describe the objectivity of our child psychology practical
- high from our side, because once we have teh self report data there is no opinion involved in scoring the questionnaire, classifying the attachment style, or the chi squared that follows
describe the reliability of our child psychology practical
- high because closed questions funnel people towards the same or similar boxes each time.
- in terms of romantic attachment, external reliability may be an issue. if they answer on monday they may be very positive. if they have a huge argument on wednesday this will affect their answers if you repeat the test on thursday.
why do attachments form?
natural selection.
attachment behaviour evolved becasue it benefitted both babies and parents.
how does attachment benefit paretns?
their genes are more likely to be passed on if the children are well protected.
how does attachment benefit children?
they are more likely to survive if they maintain a close proximinty to their caregiver.
what is the sensitive period in terms of human babies and what does this mean?
about 6 months. this means babies form attachments at about 6 months, but if they dont then they may never be able to form attachments.
who do babies attach to?
carers who are most sensitive to their needs - more responsive, cooperative, accessible
what are social releasers?
baby-like behaviours and features that elicit caregiving (things that make the carer want to look after the baby)
they lead to survival and reproductive success
what is monotropy?
When babies form a primary attachment / special emotional bond to / with one caregiver. This relationship is thought to be qualitatively different from relationships to anyone else.
who is the primary caregiver?
the person who responds most sensitively to the babys needs, not the one who spends the most time with them.
traditionally the mother
except monotropy, what else do babies do attachment wise?
they form secondary attachments that provide an emotional safety net - many babies prefer tehir mother if theyre upset but are equally well comforted by their father, grandparent or sibling if the mother is absent.
what is the main consequence of forming attachments?
it forms an internal working model of relationships should be
= expectations about the self, significant others and the relationship between the 2, that stem frm early attachment experiences.
what are the 2 consequences of the internal working model of relationships?
- short term –> gives the child insight inot the carers behaviour and enables the child to influence it (so a true partnership can be formed)
- long term –> a template for future relationships, creating expectations about what good relationships are like
what is the continuty hypothesis?
there is continuty from infancy to adulthood in terms of emotional attachment type
what are the emotional types possible in the continuty hypothesis?
- individuals who are strongly attached in infancy continue to be socially and emotionally competant
- babies who are not strongly attached have more social and emotional difficulties in childhooand adulthood.
what is a strength of bowlby’s work on attachment?
- isabella (1993) observed mother and babies at 1, 4 and 9 months, assessing quality of attachment at 1 year.
- he found that the most strongly-attached babies had mothers who were more sennsitively responsive.
- this supports the importance of sensitivity in the formation of a close attachment
what is a weakness of bowlby’s work on attachment?
- kagan’s (1984) temperament hypothesis says that a baby’s innate temperament (personality) has an important influence on the attachment elationship.
- some babies are emotionally ‘difficult’ from birth and this affects the mother’s ability to form a close relationship.
- this mean that how attachments form depends on more than just the sensitiveity of the mother/caregiver (both nature and nurture matter).
describe an extra strength of bowlby’s work on attachment
- according to bowlby it should be not possible to form attachments beyond the age of 6 months.
- rutter et al (2011) agree that it is less likely attachments form after this period. but they believe it is not impossible (a sensitive period rather than a critical period).
- this means that children are the most receptive to forming certain behaviours at a particualr time, but such developments can still occur outside this period
describe bowlby’s 44 juvenile thieves study in terms of support for the critical period
He studied 44 juveniles in a juvenile delinquency Centre. He found that 17 of the 44 had experienced prolonged separation from their mother in the first six months of life. 15 of the 17 have been classified as having affectionless psychopathy, as opposed to 2 of the 24 who had not been separated from their mother. The supports the idea that a lack of attachment within the critical period can lead to never forming an attachment and a psychopathic personality
what is the application of bowlby’s work on attachment?
- bowlby’s theory has had a considerable impact on attitudes mother going out to work
- it implies mother should stay at home to care for children because separation is harmful to emotional develpopment
- therefore some feminits critised bowlby for discouraging women from being a mother and a career woman.
what is a counter argument to the application of bowlby’s work on attachment?
it misses a key part of the attachment theory - atachment is related to the quality of time spent with a baby, not the amount.
fox (1977) tested babies raised on israeli kibbtz (a metapelet looks after all the children during the day). the babies spent less time with their mothers but the attachment bond was almost as strong to the mother as it was to the metapelet.
how does hasan and shaver 1987 support bowlby’s theory of attachment?
they tested whether early attachments formed a template for later romatic relationships using the ‘love quiz’.
the 620 replies were classed as secure or insecure in their parent child relationships and related this to their belief about romatic love. they found secure parent child relationships = trusting relationships.
insecure parent child relationships = romantic relationships based on obsession, attraction and jealously.
this correlation supports bowlby
how does schaffer and emerson contradict bowlby’s theory of attachment?
their longitudinal study of 60 babies until they were 18 months old found that 17% of babies formed multiple attachments as soon as attachemnt behaviours were displayed.
by 4 months 50% of babies had more than 1 attachment, up to 5.
at 18 months, only 13% of children had 1 attachements.
this doesnt support bowlbys idea of monotropy.
what is the usefulness of bowlby’s work on attachment?
- contrinuted to development of new hospital procedures ensuring visting times and access rights of parents to hospitalised children were increases.
- it made a positive contribution to childcare practices to avoid bond distruption.
- day care carefully considers the nature of subsitute care and care-carer ratio are set by government
- howver, it has made working mother fel guilty and anxious about leaving children at daycare.
what is the testability of bowlby’s work on attachment?
it is not a testable theory because in order to test it you would have to vary how much the caregiver loves their child and measure how much it impact thier mental health. this is very unethical. however, we can do animal studies.
what was the name of the experiment ainsworth created?
strange situation procedure (ssp)
what was the ssp for and how is it carried out?
a method of assessing attachment type, structured observation in a new/strange room, 9 x9 foot square is marked off inot 16 squares to track the babies movements.
what are the stages of the ssp?
- mother and baby taken to small room with toys.
- child explores room and plays while the mother is there.
- stranger enters, greets mother, talks to her and then tries to interact with the child through play.
- the mother gets up and leaves the room, leaving the child and stranger alone.
- after a short period (determined by the child’s distress) the mother returns to join the child and stranger. she consoles the child and stranger leaves.
- mother leaves the room, leaving child alone.
- stranger enters the room and attempts to interact with and console the child in the mother’s absence.
- the mother returns to console the child for the second time and the stranger leaves the room.
what is assessed at each stage of the ssp?
- n/a
- use of parent as secure base
- stranger anxiety
- separation anxiety
- reunion behaviour
- separation anxiety
- stranger anxiety
- reunion behaviour
why is a new environment used?
to encourage exploration and thus test the secure base concept
what were the data collection methods?
- used a video recorder and/or a 2 way mirror
- note what the baby is doing every 15 seconds (time sampling)
- use behavioural categories (e.g. contact-seeking behaviours or interaction-avoiding behaviours
- each item is also scored for intensity on a scale of 1 to 7
what was the sample of ainsworth?
106 middle class babies in USA
what are the different attachment types found by ainsworth and their prevalance in the sample?
type a= insecure-avoidant –> 23%
type b= secure –> 65%
type c= insecure resistant –> 12%
what are the characteristics of an insecure avoidant baby? how does the parent behave?
- high willingness to explore, low stranger anxiety, indifferent separation anxiety, indifferent to departure or return of caregiver
parent is inconsistently emotionally available
what are the characteristics of a secure baby? how does the parent behave?
some separation anxiety but easy to sooth, high stranger anxiety, enthusiastic reunion behaviour, used caregiver as a secure base from which to explore, high willingness to explore.
parent is consistenty emotionally available
what are the characteristics of an insecure resistant baby?how does the parent behave?
high stranger anxiety, high separation anxiety (distressed), low willingness to explore, reunion behaviour was angry, resistance to being picked up, also trying other means to maintain proximity (seeks contact then rejects it). parent is consistently emotionally unavailable
describe the strength of using observations in ainsowrth’s study
they are highly reliable.
- used a panel of experienced observers which meant inter-observer reliability could be calculated.
- almost perfect agreement when rating exploratory behaviour (a correlation of +0.94 between raters’ scoring on the SSP)
- this means that the observations can be trusted
- use a standardised procedure
- high internal validity – multiple stages assess the same behaviour, shows consistency of observations
desrcibe the weakness of overlooking other types of attachments in ainsworth’s study
- main and solomon (1990) analysed over 200 SSP videos and found a type d (insecure-disorganised –> lack of consistent patterns of behaviour)
- a 5th type has been indentified - disinhibited attachment, characterisitic of children who have experienced severe privation
- this means the initial research may have oversimplified a more complex situation, therefore lacking validity
describe the weakness of low internal validity in ainsworths study
- the ssp aims to measure the attachment type of the child, but it actually measures the quality of one specific relationship
- main and wetson (1981) found that classification of attachment type depended on which parent the baby was with
- this suggests that attachment type may not be valid because what we are measuring is one relationship rather than a personal characteristic
what is a counter argument to the weakness of low internal validity?
it could be argued the realtionship between child and primary caregiver is the key factor in determining attachemnt type .
so if relationship being measured is with the primary attachment figure the outcome is valid.
what is the application of ainsworth’s research?
processes of attachment can be applied to childcare situations
- in cases of disordered attachments, intervention strategies can be developed (e.g. circle of security teaches carers to understand babies distress signals and increase understanding of how it feels to be anxious.
- in a study of security users, Cooper et al. (2005) found a decrease in the number of caregivers classified as disordered (from 60% to 15%) and an increase in securely attached babies (from 32% to 40%)
- this supports the research on attachment types because such research can be used to improve children’s lives and such strategies can only be trusted if they have a valid theoretical basis.
when might the ssp not be valid?
when using it on children who go to daycare (e.g. those accustomed to separation)
why might the ssp have low EV?
the child may behave differently in more familar surroundings
what are the ethics of the ssp?
Can cause distress to the child, however this is combatedwhat did fuertes et al. (2006) conduct reseach on by the panel of trained observers knowing to recognise the signals of distress
what did fuertes et al. (2006) conduct reseach on?
48 portuguese babies and mother, studied the sensitive, responsiveness of mother and the attachement bond secured by attentive mothers. they observed the mothers and babies regularly until they reached their first birthday. they assesed the babys personality in the first few months and the mothers sensitivity to the babies needs. when the babies were 12 months old, they used the ssp to categories them into different attachment types.
what did fuertes et al 2006 find and conclude?
it wasnt only the sensitive, responsiveness of the mother that determined the attachment type, but individual temperament or personality of the child had an overwhelming influence on the type of attachment that developed
does fuertes research support or contradict ainsworth’s research?
contradicts the maternal sensitivity hypothesis, highlighting instead the role of individual differences in the personality of the child
do think the ssp works but they think the relationship between mum and child is both to do with the childs temperament and also the sensitivity of the mother.
is ainsworth’s conclusion about senstive, responsiveness and attchment cultrally biased?
it only represents a westernised view of attachment. some cultures encourage independence so it only applies to western child rearing practicies. same for cultures where separation from parent is uncommon (e.g. japan)
why is it important to invesigate whether attachment types differ as a result of changing cultures?.
because it will show the impact of different child rearing practices. it will show whether attachment is universal or a cultrally specific phenomenon.
who studied attachment type in germany?
grossman and grossman (began in 1976-77)
what was the sample and research design of grossman and grossman?
longitudinal study, recruited 49 families at hospitals before the birth of a child. this was 23 girls and 26 boys from typical german native families with traditional divisions of labour within the family (mother tended to be primary caregiver, father was the provider).
how did grossman and grossman record their findings?
- extensive notes from observations of the parent-child interactions within the family at home
- at 2 y/o they were assessed using ssp
what were the findings of grossman and grossman?
49% children were type a (insecure avoidant)
- parental sensitivity was correlated with child-parent attachments formed
why may there be differences between attachment types for german children and american children?
- german children are more idenpendent from an earlier age, they are acustomed to being left with other adults or by themselves
who studied attachment type in japan?
miyake et al (1985) and Takahashi (1986)
what were the findings of miyake et al and Takahashi?
- absence of type a (insecure avoidant)
- greater distribution of type c (insecure-resistant) –> more than 30% compared to the usa
- showed inconsolable, great distress at separation and stranger activity
why may there be differences between attachment types for japanese children and american children?
- theyre rarely separated from their mother and attachment is characterised by close continuous physical contact, so ssp may be the first time theyve ever been left alone or with a stranger
who studied attachment in israeli kibbutz?
sagi et al. (1985)
what is life like in an israeli kibbutz?
theyre separated from the parents in the day, instead looked after in a nursery environment headed by a metapelet.
they often sleep in dorms and are cared for collectively where child rearing is shared
what were the findings of sagi et al?
- high amount of type c (insecure resistant) –> 33%
why may there be differences between attachment types for isreali children and american children?
- because the mother was regularly absent and caregivers rotated shifts so lack of continuous and immediate attention
what were the findings in sagi’s study variation looking at the children sleeping with their parents instead of in dorms?
consistent with attachment proportions in the usa
why might the ssp not be a useful measure of attachment across other cultures?
because it reflects the values and beliefs of child rearing practices of america. its not sensitive to cultrual values
what would be assumed if we applied ainsworths findings to germany, japan and israeli kibbutz?
ainsworth suggests a strong association between sensitive, responsive parenting and type b secure attachments
translating this would assume japanese, german and israeli children are insecurely attached due to lack of maternal sensitive responsiveness (consistently insensitive or inconsistently sensitive).
what conclusion can be drawn from the cross-cultral research?
attachment exists across many culture and to an extent is determined by maternal sensitivity.
supports bowlby’s idea that attachment is an innate process driven by evolutionary adaptness.
however, type od attachment formed is largely dependent on different child rearing practices in different cultures.
what was the aim of our classic study van ijenzendoorn and kroonenberg?
to investigate if attachment styles are universal across cultures, or cultrally specific (vary considerably from place to place due to traditions, social environment or beliefs about children)
what kind of study did van ijenzendoorn and kroonenberg conduct?
meta analysis, compiling different studies research
what research did van ijenzendoorn and kroonenberg compile?
data from 32 separate studies carried out in 8 different countries and in total represented 1990 strange situation classifications.
all used the ssp.
they excluded studies that included children with special educational needs, studies with overlapping samples and studies where children were over 24 months.
what did van ijenzendoorn and kroonenberg find to be the most common attachment type across all 8 countries?
secure type b
what attachment type was found in high proportion by van ijenzendoorn and kroonenberg in germany and why?
anxious avoidant
because german parents place high value on independence
what attachment type was found in high proportion by van ijenzendoorn and kroonenberg in japan and why?
insecure resistant
because the high value placed on dependency
what conclusions were drawn by van ijenzendoorn and kroonenberg?
it is ethical
when doing a meta analysis, all the research has already been completed so therefore none of the issues that arise from primary data research apply. this includes ethical issues. they don’t hold responsibility for the ethical concerns of the study as they themselves did not do it or could have affected it in any way because it is secondary research.
what is two weaknesses of van ijenzendoorn and kroonenberg?
- ethnocentric
- lacks population validity
how is van ijenzendoorn and kroonenberg ethnocentric?
- using the ssp in different countries and assuming it works in all is ethnocentric because it reflects american norms and values regarding child bearing.
- test suggests attachment is related to anxiety on separation and in doing so assumes that behaviour has the same meaning in all cultures
- isnt the case e.g. japan – ainsworth would interpret the high distress elvels as insecure attachment in doing so would impose western values on a different culture
how does van ijenzendoorn and kroonenberg lack population validity?
- majority of data came from studies in individualistic cultures
- only one studys data was used to represent china compared to 18 from america
- many samples used a small or biased number of middle class families which cannot represent the whole culture completely
- urban rather than rural areas were assessed
- likely the studies showed subcultures within the culture they attempted to represent
- oversimplification – great variation within each country e.g. berlin vs Bielefeld was as different as berlin vs isreali kibbutz
what was bowlbys hypothesis on the impact of separation on a child?
he believed that because a child should have a close bond with the mother in the first years of life, if they are separated, this could severely effect their emotional development.
what are the 3 short term effects of separation as suggested by who?
protest, despair, detachment
bowlby and robertson 1952
in what study can the short term effects of relatively temporary separation be seen in?
james robertson’s research
how did roberston complete his research?
by working as an observer for bowlby in a residential nursery and hospital setting, he made notes in the behaviour of the children who came to the institutions where parental visitation was very restricted.
he was able to record the distress at separation exhibited by children.
how long does the protest stage last? what does the child do in the protest stage?
range from several hours to days
cry profusely, throw themself around and seek for the mother figure.
they will actively refuse comfort from other adults or display exaggerated clinging to an adult.
anger and fear evident.
some panic stricken
when does the despair stage start? what are the symptoms of despair in a child?
once the initial protest and screaming stops and the child no longer anticipates the return of the mother and becomes increasingly hopeless.
calmer but indifferent as they show little interest in anything.
they will become withdrawn, apathetic and demonstrates mourning.
the child self-soothes and rejects the comfort of other. often displays rocking, thumb sucking and cuddling inanimate objects.
what does the child do during the detachment phase?
they regain interest in their environment and even accepts comfort and interaction with other adults but still emotionally unresponsive and avoid forming new attachments.
when the mother returns, the child doesn’t display normal reunion behaviour. they reject the mother and doesnt accept her comfort believing she has rejected them.
prolonged or repeated separations can lead to rather superficial interactions between child and other adult figures.
who is the specific example from robertson’s research?
little john, 17 months old.
he was placed in a residential nursery for 9 days while his mother was admitted to hospital to give birth to a 2nd child. his father worked all day and he had no relatives to care for him, although his father did visit him whilst he was in the nurseryhe displayed the 3 stages of distress.
protest - he sobbed and resisted comfort
despair - he played with toys and clung to a soft teddy bear
detachment - wouldn’t look at his mother when she returned, resisting attempts to soothe him.
what do some argue is another explanation for the effects seen in children follwoing the separation from their parent?
rather than the separation, it might be the associated factors around the separation like the introduction to an unfamiliar environment or the length and nature of the separation.
what was the research conducted by Spiro (1958) about?
the case of a boy brought up in an israeli kibbutz who was left for several weeks while his parents were away travelling
what were the findings of spiro?
even since the boy was left by his parents in a familiar environment and with familiar people, he still displayed the same distress documented in the case of john.
suggests the unfamiliarity of the environment alone doesn’t account for the distress shown
what was fagin (1966)’s reseach about?
study of the distress of matched children who were accompanied into hospital by their mother or left in hospital alone.
what were the findings of fagin (1966)?
only the unaccomapnied children showed distress, highlighting how its the absence of the mother figure that casued distress and not the unfamiliarity of the environment
when are the effects of separation the most severe?
if the separation is prolonged and at an early age
where and when did spitz conduct research?
in children’s orphanges in south america during the 1940s
what were the findings of spitz?
- in one insitution, babies were separated from their mothers at 3 months and placed in an orphanage to await fostering.
- in another insitution, annexed to a female prison, babies of inmates were separated from their mothers but recieved regular visits so their mothers could care for them. the prison babies thrived while the orphaned children displayed anaclitic depression and developmental delay
what was goldfarb’s 1943 research about?
the development of children raised in institutions compared to those fostered straight from their mother.
explain the procedure of goldfarb’s research
there was 15 children in each group and they were matched on maternal education and occupation, and studied from the age of about 6 months to 3 years old.
What is Betari Box?
