Checkride Prep Flashcards
Ch 4.) 4 dynamic forces that act on a airplane
Lift: Upward Force
Gravity: Weight, downward force
Thrust: forward acting force
Drag: backward acting force
Ch 4.) when are 4 dynamic forces equal in flight?
In steady-state, straight and level flight, unaccelerated flight
(Newton’s Third Law)
Ch 4.) What is an airfoil?
Useful reaction from air flowing over the surface, which creates lift.
Examples: Wings, horizontal tail surfaces, propellers
Ch 4.) What is the angle of incidence?
Measured by the angle at which the wing is attached to the fuselage. This is fixed and cannot be changed by the pilot
Ch 4.) What is relative wind?
The direction of airflow with respect to the wing. The flight path and relative wind are always in parallel but travel in opposite directions.
Ch 4.) What is the angle of attack?
The angle between relative wind and the chord line. This can be changed by the pilot.
Ch 4.) What is Bernoulli’s principle?
Higher speed air is lower in pressure. Lower speed air is higher pressure. Air foils (e.g. plane wing) is design to have air move faster above the wing, which creates a higher pressure area beneath the wing causing Lift.
Ch 4.) What are the several factors that affect both lift and drag?
Wing area - Shape of Air foil angle of attack velocity of the air air density
Ch 4.) What is the torque effect?
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction (Newton’s third law). For the plane, as the engine and the propeller rotate in one direction, an equal force is trying to rotate the airplane in the opposite direction.
*This is strongest at LOW airspeeds with High Power Settings and a High Angle of Attack (e.g. on takeoff)
Ch 4.) What effect does Torque Reaction have (on ground and in flight)?
In Flight: Torque works longitudinally making the airplane roll. The engine is designed to be offset to counteract this effect.
On ground: During takeoff roll, the vertical axis has torque. Left side of the airplane is being forced down, and so more weight is placed on left landing gear, causing more ground friction (drag) on the left tire than the right.
Ch 4.) Four Factors that contribute to Torque effect:
C: Corkscrewing effect of prop slipstream: At high propeller speeds and low forward speeds (i.e. takeoff), the slipstream strikes the vertical tail surface on the left side pushing the tail to the right and yawing the airplane to the left.
A: Asymmetrical loading of the propeller (P-Factor): When an airplane is flying with a high angle of attack, the bite of the downward moving propeller blade is greater than the bite of the upward moving blade. This is due to the downward moving blade meeting the oncoming relative wind at a greater angle of attack.
G: Gyroscopic effect of the propeller: Most noticeable on takeoffs in taildraggers when tail is raised. Specifically when the axis of a prop is tilted, the resulting force will be exerted 90 degrees ahead in direction of rotation.
E: Torque reaction to engine and propeller: Rotation of the prop to the right causes roll or bank to the left.
Ch 4.) What is centrifugal force:
Centrifugal force is the “equal and opposite reaction” of the plane to change direction and to the horizontal lift.
Ch 4.) What is Load Factor:
The ratio of the total load supported by the airplanes wing to the actual weight of the plane and its contents.
Ch 4.) Why is load factor important?
1) due to the possibility to overload the airplane, dangerously impacts the structure
2) Increased load factor increases the stalling speed and makes stalls possible at seemingly safe flight speeds.
Ch 4.) What situations may result in load factors reaching the maximum or being exceeded?
Level turns: A 60 degree bank is 2 Gs. The load factor of an 80 degree bank is 5.7 Gs. The wing must product left equal to these load factors to maintain altitude.
Turbulence: Large gusts can increase angle of attack, increasing loads.
Speed: At speeds below the maneuvering speed, the airplane will stall before the load factor can become excessive.
Ch 4.) What are the different operational categories (think: weight and balance)
Normal; Safe load factors: +3.8 to -1.52
Utility: Safe load factors: +4.4 to -1.76
Aerobatic: +6 to -3
Ch 4.) How does load factor impact stall speed?
As load factor increases, stall speed increases. At a given airspeed the load factor increases as angle of attack increases, and the wing stalls because the angle of attack has been increased to a certain angle.
Ch 4.) Define maneuvering speed:
the maximum speed at which the limit load can be imposed without causing structural damage.
It is the speed below which you can move a single flight control to full deflection without risk of damage to plane. Stalls before this speed don’t experience a load factor
Ch 4.) How does maneuvering speed change with increase or decrease in weight?
Maneuvering speed increases with increase in weight and decreases with a decrease in weight.
An aircraft operatings t or near gross weight in turbulent air is much less likely to exceed design limit load factors
Ch 4.) Define Loss of Control in Flight
Defined as a significant deviation of an aircraft from the intended flight path. This most commonly happens while maneuvering.
Increase risk during uncoordinated flight, equipment malfunction, pilot complacency, distraction, turbulence, and poor risk management (like flying in IMC weather when not qualified)
Ch 4.) What causes a stall?
Excessive angle of attack (critical angle of attack). Usually occurs around 16-20 degrees depending on the planes design. Each airplane has only ONE specific angle of attack where stall occurs, regardless of airspeed, weight, load factor, or density altitude.
Ch 4.) What is a spin?
Controlled spins are recoverable; Uncontrolled spins are possibly unrecoverable.
Descending in a helical path while flying at an angle of attack beyond the critical angle (e.g. you have to be stalled)
Ch 4.) When are spins most likely to occur:
1) Engine failure on takeoff.
2) crossed-control turn from base to final: overshoot final and making uncoordinated turn at low airspeed.
3) Engine failure on approach to landing:
4) Go-around with full nose-up trim
5) Go-around with improper flap retraction: Pilot does full power and retracts flaps rapidly (rather than gradually after noting positive climb rate after each flap level) resulting in a rapid sink rate and instinctive increase in back pressure from pilot.
Ch 4.) How do you recover from a spin?
P: Power reduce to idle
A: Ailerons: position to neutral
R: Rudder: Apply rull rudder in direction opposite of rotation.
E: Elevator: Apply positive, forward movement to break the stall.
After spins stops, neutralize rudder and apply back pressure
Ch 4.) What is ground effect?
The condition of improved performance when operating near the ground.
Ch 4.) What major problems are caused by ground effect?
Ground effect During landing is height of 1/10ths of a wing span above the surface. drag may be 40% less. Potentially can cause floating.
GE during takeoff; plane might seem ready for takeoff before it really is. If plane leave ground effect prematurely, the sudden increased drag can cause flight deficiency or inability to fly
Ch 4.) Define Empty Weight:
All permanently installed equipment and unusable fuel. Usually oil as well
Ch 4.) Define Gross weight:
Max allowable weight of both the airplane and its contents.
Ch 4.) Define Useful Load
Weight of pilot, copilot, passengers, bags, and usable fuel
Ch 4.) Define moment:
weight multiplied by arm. expressed in “pound-inches”
Ch 4.) Define Center of Gravity:
The point about which an aircraft would balance. Expressed as “inches from Datum”
Ch 4.) Define Datum:
An imaginary vertical plane or line that determines ‘arm’. Established by the manufacturer.
Ch 4.) What is the basic CG formula?
CG (arm) = (total) moment / (total) weight
Ch 4.) What’s the impact of overloaded airplane?
Higher takeoff speed, longer takeoff roll, reduced rate & angle of climb, lower max altitude, shorter range, reduced cruising speed, reduced ability to maneuver plane, higher stalling speed, higher landing speed, longer landing roll, excessive weight on the nose-wheel.
Ch 4.) Impact of a forward CG:
Higher stall speed, slower cruise speed, more stable plane, more back pressure on yoke required (nose goes down)
Ch 4.) Impact of aft (rearward) CG:
Lower Stall speed, higher cruise speed, less stable (stall and spin recovery is harder)
Ch 4.) Standard weights for Gas, Oil, Water:
Gas: 6 lbs
Oil: 7.5 lbs
Water: 8.35 lbs
Ch 4.) What are the main elements of aircraft performance?
Takeoff an landing distance Rate of climb ceiling payload range speed fuel economy ability to maneuver stability,
Ch 4.) What factors impact plane performance?
Air Density Surface wind runway surface (material) upslope or downslope of runway weight
Ch 4.) How does wind impact plane performance?
On Takeoff; Headwind can allow aircraft to reach lift off speed at lower ground speeds = shorter takeoff distance and better angle of climb
On landing: headwind will lower ground speeds and increase ground performnce;
Cruise: Winds aloft can decrease performance. Headwind will reduce speed and increase fuel required in flight
Tailwind will increase performance by increasing the ground speed, reducing fuel requirement
Ch 4.) How does weight impact takeoff and landing?
increased gross weight can impact:
- higher liftoff speed
- greater mass to accelerate (slow acceleration)
- increased drag and friction
- longer takeoff distance
Ch 4.) What effect does an increase in density altitude have on takeoff and landing performance?
Increased takeoff distance
reduced rate of climb
increased true airspeed on approach and landing
increased landing roll distance
Ch 4.) Define Density Altitude:
Pressure altitude corrected for non-standard (non- 15 degrees C) temperature.
Technically, density altitude is the vertical distance above sea level in the standard atmosphere at which a given density is found.
Ch 4.) How does air density impact performance?
Lift produced by wings,
power output by engine
propeller efficiency
drag forces
Ch 4.) What factors affect air density?
Altitude: higher in altitude = less dense air
Temp: warmer the air = less dense it is
Humidity: more humid air is less dense
Ch 4.) How does temp altitude and humidity affect density altitude?
Density altitude will INCREASE (low air density) when one or more of the following occurs:
- High air temp
- High Altitude
- High Humidity
Density Altitude will DECREASE (high air density) when one or more of the following occurs:
- Low air temp
- Low altitude
- low humidity
Ch 4.) What’s the difference between best glide speed and minimum sink speed?
Best glide: Greatest forward distance. Half way between Vx and Vy.
Minimum sink speed: maximize the length of time a plane stays in flight. losing altitude at the lowest rate. But less distance is traveled. (this is a few knots lower than Glide Speed.
Ch 4.) in 172, how far do you glide per 1000 feet of altitude lost?
1.5 nm
Ch 4.) What are the useful following charts?
Takeoff and Landing: Roll + 50ft obstacle distance
Fuel, time, and distance to climb chart.
Cruise
Crosswind / Headwind component chart
Stall speed performance charts
Ch 4.) Define Pressure Altitude:
The altitude indicated when Altimeter is set to standard (29.92Hg).
Used to compute density altitude, true altitude, true airspeed, and other data
Ch. 5) What are the four main control surfaces?
Elevators: control lateral axis - Pitch.
Ailerons: Control longitudional axis. - Roll
Rudder: Controls vertical axis - Yaw.
Trim: Reduced manual pressure on control surfaces.
Ch. 5) How are controls operated?
Through the use of either a rod or cable system. Control wheel for ailerons and elevator; pedals for rudder/brake.
Ch. 5) What are flaps?
Moveable panel on the inboard trailing edge of wings. They increase both lift and drag and they allow slower airspeed and a steeper angle of descent during a landing.
Ch. 5) Describe the landing gear system:
Tricycle-type system, utilizing two main wheels + nosewheel.
Main gear struts provide shock absorption; nose wheel absorption is from air/oil shock strut.
Ch. 5) Describe the braking system:
Hydraulically actuated disc-type brakes on each main gear wheel.
Hydraulic line connects to rudder pedals.
Ch. 5) What kind of hydraulic fluid is used?
Mineral-based. Red.
Ch. 5) How do you steer on the ground?
Rudders. When rudder pedal is depressed, a spring-loaded bungee connected to the nose wheel strut will turn the nose wheel.
Ch. 5) What kind of engine does Cessna have?
Horizontally opposed; 4-cylinder Air cooled Lycoming 160 HP
Ch. 5) What 4 strokes must occur in each cylinder of a typical four stroke engine in order for it to produce full power?
Intake: Begins as the piston starts its downward travel. Intake valve opens and fuel-air mixture is drawn into cylinder.
Compression: Starts when Intake Valve closes. Piston moves back to top of cylinder. Greater power output from the fuel-air mixture once ignited.
Power: When fuel-air mixture is sgnited, which causes big pressure increase in cylinder. forces piston downward away from cylinder head. Creates power that turns the crankshaft.
Exhaust: Purges cylinder of burned gasses. begins when exhaust valve opens.
Ch. 5) What does Carburetor do?
Mixing fuel and air in the correct proportions.
Ch. 5) How does Carb Heat work?
Carb Heat valve allows unfiltered heated air to be directed to the induction air manifold prior to the carb. Barb heat should be used anytime suspected or known carb icing conditions exist.
Ch. 5) what happens to Fuel/Air mixture when use Carb Heat?
Thicker mixture. Can reduce engine power up to 15%
Heated air is less dense, which means there is less air for the same amount of fuel.
Ch. 5) What does the throttle do?
Allows the pilot to manually control the amount of fuel/air charge entering the cylinders. This regulates the engine speed and power.
Ch. 5) What does Mixture control do?
Regulates the Fuel-to-Air ratio.
Purpose is to prevent the mixture from becoming too rich at high altitudes, due to decreasing air density. It is used to lean mixture to conserve fuel and provide optimum power.
Ch. 5) Describe Fuel Injected System:
Injects fuel directly into cylinders or ahead of intake valve.
6 main components:
- Engine driven fuel pump: pumps into the fuel/air control unit
- Fuel/air control unit: sends fuel to fuel manifold valve at rate controlled by the throttle
- Fuel Manifold valve: distributes fuel to the individual discharge nozzles
- Discharge nozzles: On cylinder head. Inject fuel/air mixure at the precise time for each cylinder.
- Aux fuel pump: For engine start and in emergencies
- Fuel pressure / flow indicators. measures metered fuel pressure / flow.
Ch. 5) What type of ignition system does plane have?
2 engine driven magnetoes.
2 spark plugs per cylinder.
Ignition system is independent of the aircraft electrical system. Magnetoes are engine-driven self-contained units sypplying electrical current without using an external source of current.
*Must be ‘actuated’ by rotating ‘crankshaft’. (i.e. turning the keys). Battery operates the Starter, magnetoes produce spark for ignition. After the engine starts, the battery no longer contributes to the actual operation of the engine.
Ch. 5) 2 advantages of dual ignition system?
1) increased safety. If one fails, you have another
2) more complete and even combustion. Improved engine performance.
Ch. 5) What type of fuel system?
Gravity fed. From wing fuel tanks.
Ch. 5) Purpose of Fuel Tank vents?
Provides a way of replacing fuel with outside air, preventing formation of a vacuum. (A vacuum would result in decreased fuel flow.)
Ch. 5) Do cessna’s have a fuel pump?
No. Gravity systems do not require a fuel pump.
Ch. 5) What type of fuel?
100LL. Blue.
It is possible, but not desirable, to use 100 if needed.
Ch. 5) What color is jet fuel?
Colorless or ‘straw’ color
Ch. 5) What is function of the manual primer? How does it work?
Purpose is to provide assistance in starting the engine. The primer draws fuel from the fuel strainer and injects it directly into the cylinder intake ports.
Ch. 5) Describe the electrical system:
28 volt, direct current system.
Powered by an engine driven 60-amp alternator;
24 volt battery
Ch. 5) How are circuits protected?
By circuit breaker or fuses. You can reset Breakers.
Ch. 5) What does the electrical system provide power for?
Radio, Fuel gauges, pitot heat, lights, flaps, turn coordinator
Ch. 5) What does the ammeter indicate?
Flow of current (in Amperes) from alternator to the battery or from battery to electrical system.
When engine is running and and master switch is on, it also shows rate of charge to the battery.
If alternator breaks (goes off line, stops functioning) then Amps will show discharge rate of battery
Ch. 5) What is function of Voltage regulator?
Monitors system voltage. In a 28-volt system, it will maintain 28 volts +/- .5
Ch. 5) Why is the generator/alternator voltage higher than battery voltage?
Difference keeps the battery charged. E.g. 12-volt battery has 14 volts.
Ch. 5) How does cabin heat work?
Fresh air heated by an exhaust shroud, is directed to cabin through a series of ducts
Ch. 5) How does the pilot control temp in the cabin?
Mixing outside air with heated air in a manifold near the cabin firewall. Air comes through ducts and vents located on the cabin floor.
Ch. 5) What are the 5 basic functions of engine oil?
1) Lubricates engine’s moving parts
2) Cools engine by reducing friction
3) removes heat from cylinders
4) Creates a seal between Cylinder Wall and Pistons
5) cleans metal and carbon particles and other contaminants off
Ch. 5) What causes Carb Icing? what are early indicators?
Vaporization of fuel as it passes through the carburetor causes a sudden cooling of the mixture.
Water vapor is squeezed out by the cooling, and if the temp is cold enough, moisture will create ice.
When temps are below 70 degrees F (21 C) with relative humidity above 80%.
First indication is loss of RPM.
Ch. 5) How can you tell you’ve gotten rid of carb ice?
When first heated, there will be a drop in RPM. Then a rise in RPM. If there was ice, there will also be intermittent engine roughness. Then RPM will rise once gone
Ch. 5) What are anti-icing and de-icing equipment?
Anti-Icing: prevents ice from forming. Examples: pitot tube and static ports, carb heat, heated fuel vents, propeller blades with electro-thermal boots, and heated windshields.
DeIcing: removes ice that has already formed on protected surfaces. Limited to Pneumatic boots on wing and tail leading edges.
- pilot can use these to inflate with air from pneumatic pumps to break ice.
Ch. 5) What is detonation?
Uncontrolled explosive ignition of the fuel/air mixture within the cylinders combustion chamber. Can lead to failure of piston, cylinder, or valves. Can cause over heating, roughness, or loss of power.
Characterized by high cylinder head temps, and occurs most often at high power settings
Ch. 5) What are operational causes of Detonation?
1) using lower fuel grade
2) Low RPM with high manifold pressure
3) operating the engine at a high power setting with an excessively lean mixture
Ch. 5) What do you do in cases of detonation?
Avoid with these basic guidelines:
1) use proper fuel grade
2) Use an enriched fuel mixture and shallow climb angle to increase cylinder cooling during takeoff and initial climb
3) avoid extended, high power, steep climbs
4) Monitor engine instruments to verify proper operation
Ch. 5) What is Pre-Ignition?
Occurs when fuel/air mixture ignites prior to the engine’s normal ignition. Results in reduced engine power and high operating temps.
Usually caused by a residual hot spot in the combustion chamber, from a carbon spot on spark plug, cracked spark plug, or other damage in cylinder.
can cause sever engine damage because the expanding gases exert excessive pressure on the piston
Ch. 5) What do you do in cases of PreIgnition?
1) Reduce Power
2) Reduce the climb rate for better cooling
3) Enrich fuel/air mix
Ch. 5) What does it mean if during runup, when switch from “Both” magnetoes to “Left” magneto, if there is no drop in RPM?
It means the other side has totally failed and the engine is completely running on the one side.
Ch. 5) What does it mean if the Amps instrument shows positive deflection?
After starting: Power from batter is being replished by the alternator;
During flight: A faulty voltage regulator is causing the alternator to overcharge the battery. Reset system and terminate flight ASAP.
Ch. 5) What does it mean if Ams instrument shows negative deflection?
After starting: This is normal during start. At other times, this indicates the alternator is not functioning or it is being overloaded. Battery not receiving a charge*
During flight: Alternator is not functioning or an overload exists. Battery not receiving a charge. Possible causes: the master switch was accidentally shut off, or alternator circuit breaker tripped.
Ch. 5) What if Amps show negative continuously in flight?
Alternator circuit breaker should be checked and reset.
1) turn off alternator & Pull circuit breaker
2) All electrical equipment not essential should be turned off
3) Terminate flight.
Ch. 5) What action should be taken if Amps indicates a continuous charge while in flight? (more than two needle widths?)
Battery would overheat + possible explosion. Electronic components in the electrical system would be adversely affected
If excessive voltage is detected, an OverVoltage sensor should shut off alternator. Then:
1) Alternator turned off. pull circuit breaker
2) turn off all electrical equipment non essential
3) Terminate flight.
Ch. 5) During a cross country flight, you notice the oil pressure is low, but the oil temp is normal. What is the problem and how do you react?
Could be the result of having low fuel.
If oil temp continues to remain normal, a clogged oil pressure relief valve or an oil pressure gauge malfunction could be the culprit.
Land ASAP to determine cause.
Ch. 5) What procedure should be followed if there’s a partial loss of power in flight?
A: Glide speed. (Airspeed)
B: Best place to land.
C: Checklist - try to determine cause and correct.
1) Check fuel amount
2) Check fuel selector valve’s current position
3) Check Mixture
4) Check operation of magnetos in all 3 positions: Both, Left, Right.
5) Check primer control
Ch. 5) What to do if Engine Fire in flight?
1) Mixture Idle Cut Off
2) Fuel Selector to “Off”
3) Master “Off”
4) Cabin heat “off” / Vents “on”
5) Fly 100 KIAS - increase descent if needed
6) Execute a Forced Landing Checklist
Ch. 5) What to do if Engine Fire on the Ground?
1) Continue turning magnetos - start will cause flames and excess fuel to get sucked through carburetor
2) If engine starts: Increase power to higher RPM for a few minutes. Then Shut down engine.
3) If engine doesn’t start: Throttle “Full”; Mixture: “Idle Cutoff”; Try to restart engine
4) If fire continues: Ignition to “Off”; Master “off”; Fuel Selector “off”
Ch. 5) Which instruments use Pitot & static system?
All 3: static
Altimeter, vertical speed, airspeed indicator (pitot)
Ch. 5) How does the altimeter work?
Measures the absolute pressure of the ambient air and displayed it in terms of feet above a selected pressure level.
Mechanically, a Stack of Aneroids. As presure tries to compress aneroids against natural springiness, thickness changes as air pressure changes.
Ch. 5) What are the limitations of a pressure altimeter?
Limits are non-standard pressure and temperature.
On a warm day: Pressure is higher than standard. Altimeter therefore show below actual pressure
On cold day: pressure is lower than standard. Altimeter therefore shows something higher than actual.
Define and state how you would determine the following altitudes: Absolute, Indicated, Pressure, True, and Density
Absolute: the vertical distance of an aircraft above the terrain.
Indicated: The altitude read directly from the altimeter when set to current altimeter setting
Pressure altitude: Altitude when the altimeter setting is adjusted to 29.92 (standard).
True Altitude: The vertical distance of the aircraft above sea level.
Density Altitude: Pressure altitude for nonstandard temp variations. For Takeoff, Climb, and landing. (Corrected for temp)
How does the airspeed indicator work?
It uses the differential pressure between the static air and the pressure impact in the pitot tube. The difference is registered on the airspeed indicator
What is an error of the airspeed indicator?
Position error: caused by static ports sensing erroneously. This can happen from slipstream flow.
What are the different types of air speeds?
Indicated airspeed: Airspeed as observed on the indicator. Does not take into consideration airspeed errors: Position, or compressibility
Calibrated airspeed: Indicated airspeed but corrected for position error and instrument error. This is equal to True Air Speed at sea level in standard atmosphere.
Equivalent airspeed: Corrected for compressibility. Equal to Calibrated Airspeed at sea level in standard atmosphere.
True Airspeed: CAS Corrected for Altitude and Non-Standard atmosphere. Air speed in relation to the air mass in which it is flying.
Name several important airspeeds not marked on the airspeed indicator:
Maneuvering Speed (Va): 99 kts. Max speed for full limit load or full deflection of control surfaces without causing damage.
Landing gear operating speed (Vlo): Max speed for extending / retracting landing gear. (not cessnas)
Best angle-of-climb (Vx): needed for short field takeoffs
Best rate of climb (Vy): Most altitude for given time. Normal climbout rate.
What do color coded markings mean for airspeed indicator?
White arc: Flaps operating range; Vso = stall; Vfe = max flap extension speed.
Green arc: normal operating range; Vs1: Stall speed when clean (no flaps); Vno: Normal operatings max structural cruise.
Yellow arc: Caution range.
Red line: Vne: Never exceed speed. Above this structure failure may occur.
How does the vertical speed indicator work?
Differential pressure instrument.
What are the limitations of the vertical speed indicator?
Doesn’t indicate correctly until stabilized.
Which instruments use gyroscopes?
Turn coordinator,
heading indicator
attitude indicator.
What are the fundamental properties of gyroscopes? How is it powered?
Rigidity in space: Remains in a fixed position
Precession:
Powered either by vacuum, pressure systems or electrically operating.
How does the vacuum system work?
An engine driven vacuum pump provides suction.
How does the attitude indicator work?
The horizontal bar represents the true horizon.
The gyro in the attitude indicator is mounted on a horizontal plane and and depends upon rigidity in space for its operation.
What are the limitations of attitude indicator?
Banking limits are from 100 - 110 degrees. Pitch limits are 60 - 70 degrees.
What are the errors of attitude indicator?
Very little, but possibly a slightly strong indicatioin with rapid acceleration (nose up) or deceleration (nose down)
How does the heading indicator operate?
Uses Rigidity in Space: rotor turns on a vertical plane and compass card is fixed to the rotor.
What error is the heading indicator subject to?
“Precession” and Friction causes the heading indicator to creep or drift from a heading after being set. This is dependent on the condition of the instrument.
Heading indicator may indicate as much as 15 degrees error per hour of operation.
How does the turn coordinator operate?
Uses precession to indicate direction and approximate rate of turn.
The gyroreacts by trying to move in reaction to the force applied, therefore moving the needle plane icon in proportion to the rate of turn.
The ball (slip/skid indicator) is a liquid filled tube with a ball that reacts to centrifugal force and gravity.
What is precession?
Precession is the tilting or turning of the rotor axis as a result of external forces. When a deflective force is applied to a stationary gyro rotor, the rotor will move in the direction of the force.
What information does the turn coordinator provide?
Shows the Yaw and Roll of aircraft around the vertical and longitudinal axes.
Standard rate of. turn of 3 degree per second.
What will the turn indicator indicate when the plane is in a “skidding” or a “slipping” turn?
Slip: ball in tube will be inside of the turn. Not enough rate of turn for the amount of bank.
Skid: the ball in the tube will be to the outside of the turn. too much rate eof turn for the amount of bank.
Gen Aero) Describe the engine:
The 172 R and S models are equipped with a Lycoming, 4 cylinder, normally aspirated, fuel injected, 360 cubic inch, horizontally opposed, air cooled, direct drive IO-360-L2A engine.
The R model produces 160 HP @ 2400 RPM, and the
S model and R Model with Cessna 72-01 engine modification produces 180 HP @ 2700 RPM.
Ignition is provided by 2 magnetos on the back of engine which provide spark to 8 spark plugs (2 per cylinder).
The engine has an 8 quart oil sump. Genesis Aero minimum oil quantity for takeoff is 6 quarts. If engine is hot just under 6 is acceptable.
Gen Aero) Describe the propellors:
The engine drives a McCauley, 75 inch (R- Model) 76 inch (S- Model and R with Modification), 2 blade, all metal, fixed pitch propeller.
Gen Aero) Describe the Vaccum system
Two engine-driven vacuum pumps are located on the back of engine, providing vacuum to the attitude and heading gyros, and have a normal operating
range 4.5-5.5 inches of mercury. Failure of a vacuum pump is indicated by an annunciator panel light. In most circumstances, failure of one pump alone will not cause the loss of any instruments because the remaining pump should handle the entire vacuum demand.
Gen Aero) Describe the landing gear
The landing gear is a fixed, tricycle type gear consisting of tubular spring steel providing shock absorption for the main wheels, and an oleo (air/oil) strut providing shock absorption on the nose wheel.
The nose strut extends in flight, locking it in place. The nose wheel contains a shimmy damper which damps nose wheel vibrations during ground operations at high speeds.
The nose wheel is linked to the rudder pedals by a spring loaded steering bungee which turns the nose up to 10
degrees each side of center. Differential breaking allows up to 30 degrees of steering each side of center.
Gen Aero) Describe the breaks
Brakes are hydraulically actuated, main wheel single-disc brakes controlled by master cylinders attached to both pilots’ rudder pedals. When the airplane is parked, the main wheel brakes may be set by the parking brake handle beneath the left side instrument panel. To apply the parking brake, set the brakes with the rudder pedals, pull the handle aft and rotate it 90° down. Make sure the parking break I’d not engaged prior to take off.
Gen Aero) Describe the flaps:
The 172 has single slot type flaps driven electrically by a motor in the right wing.
A flap position selector on the instrument panel has detents at the 0°, 10°, 20° and 30° positions. Never deploy flaps above maximum flap deployment speeds. Do not perform a forward slip with flaps deployed. In the event of an electrical failure the flaps will not be able to be deployed, if this occurs preform a forward slip to land.
Gen Aero) Describe Pitot Static system
The Pitot Static system consists of a pitot tube on left wing providing ram
air pressure to the airspeed indicator, and a static port on the left side of the fuselage providing static pressure to the Altimeter, Vertical Speed Indicator and Airspeed Indicator. The pitot tube is electrically heated and an alternate static source is located under the instrument panel next to throttle.
Gen Aero) Describe the fuel system:
The fuel system consists of 2 tanks in the wings with a total fuel capacity of 56 gallons, of which 53 is usable. Usable fuel quantity is placarded on fuel selector. Typically there are 13 Fuel sumps – 5 each wing and 3 under engine cowling.
Fuel vents – 1 under left wing
Fuel is gravity fed from wing tanks to the fuel selector valve labeled BOTH, RIGHT, and LEFT, and then to a reservoir tank. From the reservoir tank the fuel
flows to an electrically driven auxiliary fuel pump, past the fuel shutoff valve, through the strainer and to an engine driven fuel pump. Fuel is then delivered to the fuel air control unit where it is metered and passed to a manifold where it is distributed to each cylinder. The auxiliary fuel pump is used for engine priming during cold engine starts. The auxiliary fuel pump is OFF for normal takeoff and landing operations.
Gen Aero) Describe the electric system
The airplane is equipped with a 28 volt DC electrical system and a 24 volt lead-acid battery. Electrical energy is supplied by a 60 amp alternator located on the front of the engine. An external power receptacle is located on the left side of engine cowl. Electrical power is distributed through electrical buses and circuit breakers. If an electrical problem arises, always check circuit breakers.
“Essential” circuit breakers should be reset in flight only once, and only if there is no smoke or “burning smell”, and only if the affected system and equipment is needed for the operational environment. Do not reset any non-essential circuit breakers in flight.
Ch. 5) How does the magnetic compass work?
Magnetized needles are fasted to a float assembly, on top of a mounted compass card. These align themselves parallel to the earth’s magnetic lines.
Float assembly is housed in a bowl filled with acid-free white kerosene.
Ch 5.) What are limitations of magnetic compass?
Jewel and pivot type mounting allows the float freedom to rotate and tilt up to approx. 18 degrees bank angle. At steeper bank angles the compass indications are erratic.
Ch. 5) What are various compass errors?
Oscillation: Erratic movement of the compass card caused by turbulence or rough control
Deviation: Due to electrical and magnetic disturbances in plane
Variation: Angular differences between true and magnetic north, reference isogonic lines of variation.
Dip errors:
ANDS (Accelerating causes a North error; Decelerating causes a South error) when flying east-west
UNOS: (Undershoot North, Overshoot South) - northern turns lag, southern turns lead
C. 5) What are some advanced avionics equipment?
Attitude and Heading Reference System (AHRS) Air Data Computer (ADC) Primary Flight Display (PFD) Multi-function display (MFD) Flight Director (FD) Flight Management System (FMS) Inertial navigation system (INS)
Ch 5) What is the function of magnetometer?
Measures strength of earth’s magnetic field to determine plane heading. Feed information (Digitally) to AHRS and PFD (advanced avionics)
Ch. 5) Which standby flight instruments are normally provided in an advanced avionics aircraft?
Conventional “round dial instruments” such as attitude indicator, airspeed indicator, and altimeter.
Ch. 5) For aircraft with electronic flight instrumentation, what is the function of the standby battery?
Standby battery is held in reserve and charged in case of failure of the charging system and subsequent exhaustion of the main battery. When the main battery’s volts deplete to a certain level, it ‘triggers’ the standby battery to start.
