Chapter: The Classification and Description of Speech Sounds

Question 1

1. Explain how vowels are produced (focus on the air obstruction)

Answer 1

Vowels are sounds that are produced without any obstruction in the vocal tract. But there are several organs of articulation involved, mainly the vocal folds, resonating cavities, soft palate, lips and tongue.

Question 2

2. Explain the terms pure and gliding vowels

Answer 2

Pure vowels are vowels that have only a single vowel sound when produced. (There are 12 pure vowels in English: /i:/, /ɪ/, /ʊ/, /u:/, /e/, /ə/, /ɜ:/, /ɔ:/, /æ/, /ʌ/, /ɑ:/, /ɒ/)

Gliding vowels are combinations of two or three vowel sounds within the same syllable. (Those are diphthongs and triphthongs, eg.: /aɪ/, /eə/, /aɪə/, /əʊə/ …)

Question 3

3. Define vowels from the phonetic and phonological point of view :

Answer 3

Phonetically, vowels can be defined as voiced speech sounds produced by relatively free breath without any closure or narrowing in the vocal tract that would cause audible friction.

From Phonological point of view, they can be characterized as those units which form the centre/nucleus of syllables.

Question 4

4. How do we describe vowels according to the length of vocal folds vibration?

Answer 4

Depending on how long the vocal folds vibrate during the production of vowels, we distinguish between:
1. (relatively) short
2. (relatively) long
The absolute length of English vowels depends on the nature of the sounds that follow them.

Question 5

5. How do we describe vowels according to the position of the soft palate?

Answer 5

1. When the soft palate is raised (closing the entrance to the nasal cavity),the vowels produced are purely oral.
2. When the soft palate is lowered, the vowels are nasalized.

Question 6

6. How do we describe vowels according to the shape of lips?

Answer 6

The shape of lips or lip-rounding is another important variable of vowel quality.
We distinguish 3 stages of lip-rounding:
1. Lips can be rounded as for /u:/
2. spread /i:/
3. neutral /ə/

Question 7

7. How do we describe vowels according to the horizontal position of the highest point of the tongue?

Answer 7

The tongue, or its raised part, can assume many different positions in the oral cavity.
This mobility is usually horizontal, that is, the tongue can move from back to front and vice versa.
According to this horizontal movement, we distinguish three distinct tongue positions:
1. front
2. central
3. back
Vowels made in these positions can be respectively described as fr./cen./back.

Question 8

8. How do we describe vowels according to the vertical position of the highest point of the tongue?

Answer 8

The mandible can assume different degrees of openness. These degrees play an important role in the production of vowels.
Based on the degree of openness and the consequent vertical position of the tongue, we distinguish 4 vowel types:
1. close (i:)
2. close-mid (or half-closed) /ɔ:/
3. open-mid (or half-open) /e/
4. open /a:/.

Question 9

9. How do we describe vowels according to the muscular tension of the tongue?

Answer 9

Acc.to the muscular tension of the tongue, English vowels can be divided into:
- tense (are supposed to require greater muscular tension on the part of the tongue)
- lax (in which the tongue is supposed to be held loosely)
The terms tense and lax usually apply only to close vowels, i.e. /i/-/i:/ & /ʊ/-/u:/.

Question 10

10. Explain the cardinal vowel system

Answer 10

It is the system devised by Daniel Jones for a more objective and independent description of vowels. This system allows us to define any vowel of any language accurately. The vowels that form this system are called cardinal vowels.
These cardinal vowels are given as a standard reference system. They represent the range of vowels that the human vocal apparatus can make, and this system allows us to:
1. Describe
2. Classify
3. Compare
the vowels of any language.
They are enclosed in [ ] (square brackets) because they indicate the real physical articulations – speech sounds.

Question 11

11. Describe/Explain the cardinal vowel diagram:

Answer 11

They are located on a specially shaped vowel diagram, and can be divided into:
a) Primary cardinal vowels – very similiar to the vowels in many European languages
b) Secondary cardinal vowels - can be made by alternating the primary cardinal vowels in terms of lip rounding
it can describe objectively, and with a high degree of precision, any vowel of any language.
The diagram is divided into these parts vertically:
- Close
- Close-mid
- Open-mid
- Open
The diagram is divided into these parts horizontally:
- Front
- Central
- Back

Question 12

12. Explain the phenomenon of clipping concerning sound length:

Answer 12

It was measured that vowels followed by voiceless consonants tend to be shorter.
This applies for short and long monophthongs and also for diphthongs, and this phenomenon is called clipping.

Question 13

13. Give the rules of clipping of English vowels

Answer 13

Vowels followed by voiceless consonants(p,t,k…) are shortened -> clipped.
Those followed by voiced sound (vowels+b,d,g,dž,v,h,m,n,l,r,j,w…) or a pause -> unclipped.

Question 14

14.) Explain the notions of falling and rising diphthongs and give examples:

Answer 14

When the first part of a diphthong is longer and more prominent, -> falling - /aɪ̯/ in eye
When the second part of a diphthong is longer and more prominent, -> rising - /ɔɪ/ in boy
All English diphthongs occurring in a stressed syllable -> falling
All English diphthongs occurring in an unstressed syllable /iə/ and /uə/ -> rising (and the rest of the diphthongs are falling)

Question 15

15.) Name English monophthongs:

Answer 15

These pure vowels in British English are: : /i:/, /ɪ/, /ʊ/, /u:/, /e/, /ə/, /ɜ:/, /ɔ:/, /æ/, /ʌ/, /ɑ:/, /ɒ/)

Question 16

16.) Define a monophthong:

Answer 16

Monophthong is a term referring to a single vowel sound where there is no detectable change in quality during a syllable. There are twelve distinctive monophthongs in British English.

Question 17

17.) Define a diphthong:

Answer 17

Diphthong is a complex speech sound beginning with one vowel sound and moving to another vowel sound within the same syllable. Diphthongs form centres of syllables.

Question 18

18. What are the categories of English diphthongs based on the type of sounds they consist of? Give an example of each type.

Answer 18

1. Closing diphthongs
   - Closing diphthongs ending in /ɪ/
   (/eɪ/ -> eight, /aɪ/ -> ice, /ɔɪ/ -> oil)
   - Closing diphthongs ending in /ʊ/
   (/əʊ/ -> old, /aʊ/ -> out)
2. Centring diphthongs
   - Centring diphthongs ending in /ə/
   (/ɪə/ -> dear, /eə/ -> dare, /ʊə/ -> sure)

Question 19

19. Define a triphthong.

Answer 19

It is a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced rapidly and without interruption.
These three vowels in succession can create five combinations:
1. / aʊə/
2. /aɪə/
3. /eɪə/
4. /əʊə/
5. /ɔɪə/
All of these 3-vowel sequences are formed by adding the /ə/ vowel to a closing diphthong.
They are not considered to be phonemes in traditional sense.

Question 20

20. Explain the weakening of central elements in triphthongs.

Answer 20

It’s the element of present-day English, that the vowels /ɪ/ and /ʊ/ are often weakened and sometimes disappear. This element can be represented by putting the middle elements of triphthongs in round brackets:
Example:
Fire -> /fa(ɪ)ə/

Question 21

21. What is the definition of consonants?

Answer 21

There are 24 distinctive consonants in English; e.g /p/, /g/, /w/, /s/…
They may be defined phonetically:
- as speech sounds produced by a partial or complete obstruction of the air stream by any of various constrictions of the speech organs.
Phonologically:
-Consonants are those units which function at the margins of syllables, either singly or in clusters.

Question 22

22. How are consonants classified according to the source of the energy?

Answer 22

Source of energy for the production of the majority of English sounds comes from the lungs.
a) Pulmonic – sounds produced by the enrgy of airstream from the lungs
b) Non-pulmonic – sounds in the production of which there is no involvement of the lungs

Question 23

23. How are consonants classified according to the direction of the airstream?

Answer 23

a) Egressive – when the aistream is forced out of the lungs
b) Ingressive – when airstream is sucked inwards

Question 24

24. How are consonants classified according to the vocal-fold activity?

Answer 24

a) Voiced – when the vocal folds are active – vibrating
b) Voiceless – when the vocal folds are inactive – not vibrating

Question 25

25. How are consonants classified according to the position of the soft palate?

Answer 25

a) Oral – when the soft palate is raised, the airstream is released through the mouth only
b) Nasalized – when the soft palate is lowered slightly, the aistream is released both through the mouth and the nose.
c) Nasal – when the soft palate is lowered and the oral passage is blocked completely, the airstream escapes solely through the nasal cavity.

Question 26

26. How are consonants classified according to the place of articulation? Give an example of each type.

Answer 26

a) Bilabial – the upper and lower lips make contact /b/
b) Labiodental – the lower lip and the upper teeth make contact /f/
c) Dental – the tongue makes contact with the upper teeth /θ/
d) Alveoral – the tongue makes contact with the alveoral ridge /d/
e) Post-alveolar – the tongue makes contact with the rear part of the alveoral ridge, e.g. RP /r/
f) Retroflex – the tip of the tongue is curled back and makes contact with the hard palate, e.g. General American /r/
g) Palato-alveoral – the tongue makes contact with the alveoral ridge and hard palate /ʃ/
h) Palatal – the tongue makes contact with the hard palate /j/
i) Velar – the back of the tongue makes contact with the soft palate /k/
j) Uvular – the back of the tongue makes contact with the uvula, e.g French /r/
k) Glottal – the vocal fold are narrowed and make friction with or without vibration /h/

Question 27

27. How are consonants classified according to the manner of articulation? Give an example of each type.

Answer 27

1. Occlusives – complete occlusion
   - Single occlusion – with oral air-flow - /p/
   - Repeated occlusion – with nasal air-flow /m/
2. Semi-occlusives – complete occlusion + constriction /ts/
3. Constrictives – narrowing with friction /s/
4. Approximants – narrowing without friction
   - With central air-flow /j/
   - With lateral air-flow /l/

Question 28

28. How are consonants classified according to the articulating organs involved? Give an example of each type.

Answer 28

1. Labial
   - Bilabial /p/
   - Labiodental /f/
2. Lingual
   - Apical /t/
   - Laminal /s/
   - Pre-dorsal /j/
   - Post-dorsal /k/
   - Radical /h/
3. Glottal /h/

Question 29

29. How are consonants classified according to the auditory impression?

Answer 29

They can be classified according to the presence or absence of a noise component:
1. Obstruents – during the production of these consonants there is an audible noise component (plosives, fricatives and affricates)
2. Sonorants – during the production of these consonants there is no audible noise component (oral sonorants, nasal sonorants

Question 30

30. Name 6 distinctive plosive consonants in English.

Answer 30

/p/, /t/, /k/, /b/, /d/, /g/

Question 31

31. Define plosives. What are the three main phases of plosive production?

Answer 31

The term “plosive” comes from the fact that this type of consonant produces plosion, which is the escape of the compressed air from the mouth
Plosive consonants are sometimes called stops, because during their articulation they form a complete obstruction in the mouth and stop the airstream issuing from the lungs.
1. Closure phase - the articulators move to form an obstruction
2. Hold phase - the air compresses behind the closure
3. Release phase - the organs forming the obstruction part rapidly, allowing the compressed air to escape abruptly. During the release, the escape of air produces an audible noise called plosion.
4. Post-release phase (voiceless consonants may have this additional phase) - air escaping through the vocal folds makes a sound similar to /h/. This additional puff of air is called aspiration.

Question 32

32. Define English Affricates and give examples.

Answer 32

Can be characterized as complex consonants which begin as plosives and end as fricatives. Even though they consist of two different sounds, affricates are considered to be single, independent phonemes and can be found in all positions in words.
There are 2 affricatives in English:
/tʃ/
/dʒ/.
Example:
change, feature, much, age, urgent.

Question 33

33. Define English Fricatives and give examples.

Answer 33

They can be defined as sounds produced by forcing airstream through a narrow opening causing local air turbulence. In common with plosives and affricates, fricatives are characterized by a noise component. The degree of voicing of voiced fricatives may vary according to the context. There are nine fricatives.
1. Labiodental Fricatives:
* /f/ as in “fine” (voiceless)
* /v/ as in “vine” (voiced)
2. Dental Fricatives:
* /θ/ as in “think” (voiceless)
* /ð/ as in “this” (voiced)
3. Alveolar Fricatives:
* /s/ as in “see” (voiceless)
* /z/ as in “zebra” (voiced)
4. Post-Alveolar Fricatives:
* /ʃ/ as in “shoe” (voiceless)
* /ʒ/ as in “measure” (voiced)
5. Palatal Fricatives:
* /ç/ as in the German “ich” (voiceless)
* /ʝ/ (voiced) - Note: While less common, voiced palatal fricatives exist in some languages, though /ʝ/ is often considered a voiced palatal approximant.
6. Glottal Fricatives:
* /h/ as in “hat” (voiceless)
* /ɦ/ (voiced) - Note: Voiced glottal fricatives are less common but can be found in some languages.

Question 34

34. Explain nasals and Approximants and give examples

Answer 34

Nasals are produced with the soft palate lowered, allowing air to escape into the nasal cavity. All nasals are continuants that can be produced as long as one has enough air in the lungs. They do not contain any noise component in their production. They belong among sonorants. All English nasal are voiced.
There are 3 nasals:
1. /m/: “milk.”
2. /n/: “nose.”
3. /ŋ/: “sing.”
Approximants are produced by narrowing the vocal tract, but not enough to completely obstruct the airflow - the air escapes both through the mouth and the nose.
There are 3 approximants:
1. /w/: “we”
2. /l/ - “leaf”
3. /j/ - “yes”

Question 35

35. Explain the difference between the Slovak /n/ and English /ŋ/

Answer 35

The Slovak /n/ and English /ŋ/ represent different nasal sounds, and the primary difference lies in their place of articulation.
1. Slovak /n/:
The Slovak /n/ is an alveolar nasal sound. It is produced by raising the tongue to make contact with the alveolar ridge, which is the bony ridge just behind the upper front teeth. The air flows out through the nose, and the vocal cords typically vibrate, making it a voiced sound. An example in Slovak is the word “nos” (meaning “nose”).
2. English /ŋ/:
The English /ŋ/ is a velar nasal sound. It is produced with the back of the tongue making contact with the soft palate or velum, which is the soft part at the back of the roof of the mouth. Like the Slovak /n/, the air flows out through the nose, and the sound is voiced. An example in English is the end of the word “sing.”