Chapter: General Concepts of Vocal Communication

Question 1

1. Explain the notions of Langue

Answer 1

• abstract, systematic, and structured aspect of language
• the rules of the sign system (grammar, syntax, vocabulary)
• The theoretical framework allows individuals within a community to communicate effectively and understand each other.
• Langue is like the ‘blueprint’ of a language

Question 2

1.1 Explain the notions of Parole

Answer 2

• individual, concrete instances of language use
• the articulation of signs (speech, writing, signing)
• Involves the practical application of the rules and structures of a language (Langue) in real-life communication.

Question 3

2. Explain the concept of Competence

Answer 3

• the abstract and unconscious knowledge that speakers have about their language system
• It includes: the understanding of the rules, structures, and patterns of a language that enable speakers to produce an infinite number of grammatically correct sentences.
• In phonetics and phonology: knowledge of sound patterns, phonemes, phonological rules…
• It’s the ability to form grammatical sentences and comprehend the meanings behind them

Question 4

2.1 Explain the concept of Performance

Answer 4

• the actual use of language in real-time situations
• It’s the practical application (one’s linguistic knowledge): in speaking, listening, reading, or writing.
• In phonetics and phonology: the actual pronunciation, speech production, and perception of sounds by speakers.
• It’s the observable aspect of language use and may not always perfectly reflect a speaker’s linguistic competence – it may include errors, memory limitations, etc.

Question 5

3. Explain the design feature of arbitrariness.

Answer 5

A fundamental design feature of language
- Concerning the relationship between linguistic signs (words, sounds, or gestures) and their meanings - this principle states that there is no inherent connection between the form of a linguistic sign and its meaning.
- Linguistic signs are arbitrary because there is no logical reason why a particular sound or symbol (signifier) should represent a particular concept or object (signified)
- The relationship between the signifier and the signified is based on convention and agreement within a linguistic community (rather than any inherent connection)
- Onomatopoeic elements -> the form of the word imitates or resembles the meaning to some extent (e.g. cough, bang, sizzle…) These were not created arbitrarily. These words are phonetically motivated.

Question 6

3.1 The feature of “arbitrariness” allows for:

Answer 6

1. flexibility and adaptability within a language (different languages use different sounds, words, or symbols to represent the same concept, and the connections between form and meaning can vary significantly from one language to another)
2. The creation of new words or meanings within a language based on the agreement and understanding within the community of speakers.
3. Human language to distinguish from communication system of other species (it allows for an infinite variety of meaningful expressions through conventional associations between form and meaning)

Question 7

3.2 Outline arbitrariness - relation to Phonetics and Phonology

Answer 7

Phonetics
- Arbitrariness is evident in the relationship between the sounds (phonemes) produced by the human vocal apparatus and their meanings
Example:
The sound /d/ in English has no inherent connection to the concept of “d-og.” The way the tongue, lips, and vocal cords create this sound is arbitrary in relation to its meaning.

Phonology
Phonology deals with the organization and patterns of sounds (phonemes) within a language.
- Arbitrariness is evident in the relationships between different phonemes and their functions in creating meaningful distinctions in a language
*Example: *
the difference between /b/ and /p/ in English can change the meaning of words like “bat” and “pat,” but there’s no inherent reason why these specific sounds are associated with these specific meanings.

Question 8

4. Explain the design feature of duality

Answer 8

Language creates meaning through the combination of discrete units. These units exist on 2 levels:
1. closed and small set called *phonemes
2. Open set called *words (these then create clauses and sentences).
- It enables us to communicate complex ideas, transmit knowledge, and express our thoughts and feelings in a limitless array of ways. It is one of the factors that makes language such a uniquely human phenomenon.

Question 9

5. Explain the design feature of displacement

Answer 9

A fundamental design feature of language that distinguishes it from animal communication systems. It refers to the ability of language to refer to things, events, and ideas that are not physically present or that have not yet occurred.
Displacement allows us to:
1. Talk about the past
2. Talk about the future
3. Talk about abstract concepts
4. Talk about things that do not exist

Question 10

6. Explain the design feature of productivity

Answer 10

It refers to the ability of language to create and understand an unlimited number of new utterances, even those that have never been heard or spoken before. This property is only typical of human language.
Examples:
1. Creating new words: We can coin new words from existing roots, prefixes, and suffixes. Etc. cyberbullying
2. Forming new sentences: We can combine existing words into new sentences using grammatical rules. For example, we can transform the sentence “The cat sat on the mat” into “The furry cat sat on the soft mat under the tree”
3. Generating new ideas

Question 11

7. Explain the design feature of cultural transmission

Answer 11

It refers to the passing of linguistic knowledge and practices from one generation to the next through non-genetic means. Unlike animal communication, which is often innate, human language is predominantly acquired and transmitted through social interaction and cultural learning.
It ensures that language is continuously passed down within communities, allowing it to evolve and adapt over time.
Example:
If an animal is raised by human or other animal species, it won’t be able learn the human language. If a Polish kid is raised by Hungarian family in Hungary, the child will be able to speak perfect Hungarian but not Polish – the same goes for children raised by animals. They are not able to speak any human language, only imitate animal sounds.

Question 12

8. Explain the design feature of discreteness

Answer 12

Phonemes are discrete sounds which can be grouped to create higher units, words. These words have their specific meaning and if:
- One phoneme is exchanged (eg. ‘pay’ - ‘bay’) the whole words changes its meaning
- This happens due to the difference between the phonemes p and b
The discrete and meaningless phonemes can thus make a big impact on the meaningful units – words.

Question 13

9. Define speech-sound. What is the difference between speech sounds and sounds in general?

Answer 13

Speech-sound is a unit of speech having certain articulatory, acoustic, and auditory characteristics.
They can be divided into two main gropus:
1. Vowels
2. Consonants
Difference between normal sound and speech sound:
- Sound: any vibrations in the range between 20 and 20 000 Hertz, detectable by the organs of hearing.
- Speech-sound: only those vibrations, which constitute a system of elements which can be organized into higher units, such as morphemes and words.

Question 14

10. Explain the notions of “vowel,” “semi-vowel,” and “consonant.” Comment on how vowels, semi-vowels, and consonants are pronounced concerning the obstruction of the airstream.

Answer 14

1. Vowel – is a voiced sound produced without any obstruction or narrowing in the vocal tract such that would cause audible friction.
   - There comes the problem with, for example /w/ or /j/ which can be viewed as consonants (they occur at syllable boundaries) - but both /w/ or /j/ can be pronounced without any obstruction and friction. Because of this difference in articulatory and functional classification, the sounds /w/ and /j/ are often called
2. semivowels
3. Consonant – defined as speech sounds produced by a partial or complete obstruction of the air stream by any of the organs of articulation.

Question 15

11. What is the definition of phoneme? Distinguish between phonemes and allophones.

Answer 15

Phoneme
The smallest abstract unit of sound that can distinguish between words in a language – changing the phoneme may result in changing the meaning of a word
- The basic building block of sound in language, and it is what gives words their unique identity.
- Not individual sounds, but rather sets of similar sounds that are considered to be the same for the purpose of distinguishing words.
Allophones
- are the actual variants of a phoneme that occur in different contexts
Example:
The /t/ phoneme in English can have two allophones: a dental /t/ as in “stop” and a velar /t/ as in “cat.” These two allophones are considered to be the same phoneme because they do not change the meaning of the word.

Question 16

12. Explain the complementary distribution of allophones.

Answer 16

Fundamental concept that describes the relationship between two or more allophones of the same phoneme - it states that two allophones are in complementary distribution if they never occur in the same phonetic environment (one allophone will only occur in one particular context, while the other allophone will only occur in another context) and these two allophones are called combinatory variants.
Example:
The /t/ phoneme in English has two allophones: a dental /t/ and a velar /t/. The dental /t/ occurs before alveolar sounds like /d/ and /n/, as in the word “stop.” The velar /t/ occurs before velar sounds like /k/ and /g/, as in the word “cat.” These two allophones are in complementary distribution because they never occur in the same context.

Question 17

13. Define Phonetics.

Answer 17

Branch of linguistics concerned with the study of speech sounds and their production, transmission, reception, description and representation by written symbols.
- Phonetics is interested mainly in the material aspect of human speech, so in the production of sounds, in the organs of articulation which are active when producing them, and in the sounds which are results of this production.
- The basic elements of the phonetic analysis are speech sounds – allophones.
Phonetics can be divided into 3 principal sub-branches:
1. Articulatory phonetics
2. Acoustic phonetics
3. Auditory phonetics

Question 18

14. Explain Articulatory Phonetics. What three aspects is it concerned with?

Answer 18

1. The organs of articulation – it names and describes the organs participating in sound production
2. The production of speech sounds – it describes how sounds are produced from the point of view of the rate of the vocal-fold vibration, physical effort, configuration of the articulators, and the timing of the articulatory movements
3. The articulatory description and classification of speech sounds – it describes and classifies the sounds from the point of view of the rate of vibration of the vocal cords, physical effort, configuration of articulators and the timing of articulatory movements

Question 19

15. What three aspects is acoustic phonetics concerned with?

Answer 19

1. The acoustic properties of speech sounds – it analyses sound from the point of view of fundamental frequency, intensity, wave structure (quality) and duration (quantity)
2. The transmission of speech sounds – it describes how sound waves are transmitted between the mouth and the ear
3. The acoustic description and classification of speech sounds – it describes and classifies the sounds from the point of view of their acoustic properties; fundamental frequency, intensity, wave structure (quality) and duration (quantity)

Question 20

16. What three aspects is auditory phonetics concerned with?

Answer 20

1. The reception and analysis of speech sounds – it describes how the sound is received by the ear, how it is further modulated and processed by the organs of hearing, and how it is analysed in the listener’s brain
2. The anatomical and physiological study of the ear – it describes the structure and the function of the ear
3. The auditory description and classification of speech sounds – it describes and classifies the sounds from the point of view of their auditory perception; pitch, loudness, qualitative (auditory) impression and length (quantity)

Question 21

17. Explain and compare Descriptive Phonetics and Prescriptive Phonetics

Answer 21

Based on the degree to which it complies with a given norm, phonetics can be divided into:
1. Descriptive phonetics – Describes the phonic level of a particular language as it is, not how it ought to be
2. Prescriptive phonetics – It attempts to lay down the rules of correctness and gives the norms of usage. It prescribes a model of correct pronunciation

Question 22

18. Explain the notion of Contrastive Phonetics.

Answer 22

Contrastive phonetics describes and contrasts the phonic levels of at least two languages as existing at a particular point in time, trying to establish the similarities and differences between the analysed languages

Question 23

19. Explain and compare Synchronic Phonetics and Diachronic Phonetics

Answer 23

From the point of view of the time continuum, phonetics can be divided into two categories:
1. Diachronic phonetics – it traces the historical development of the phonic level of a particular language and records the changes that have taken place in the pronunciation during the individual periods of time
2. Synchronic phonetics – it represents an account of the phonic level of a particular language at some particular point in time

Question 24

20. Explain and compare Theoretical Phonetics and Applied Phonetics

Answer 24

In terms of the applicability of the results of phonetic studies we distinguish between two areas of phonetics:
1. Theoretical phonetics – studies the phonic level of language(s) to determine its articulatory, acoustic and auditory features without any regard to possible applications.
2. Applied phonetics – it is concerned with the application of the findings of phonetics to a variety of practical tasks, such as foreign language teaching, correction of speech impediments, rhetoric, speech recognition, speech synthesis, etc.

Question 25

21. Explain and compare Subjective and Objective Methods in phonetic research.

Answer 25

1. Subjective (non-instrumental) methods – They are based on direct observation carried out by our senses, mainly eyesight and hearing, without using any instruments to objectify our observations.
2. Objective (instrumental) methods – these are methods used mainly in articulatory and acoustic research. We do not rely on our senses but usually use some type of instrument – a computer, an artificial palate, etc.

Question 26

22. Define Phonology

Answer 26

(phonemics, functional phonetics)
Branch of linguistics concerned with the classification of speech sounds from the functional point of view
- It is the description of the system and patterns of sounds that occur in a language.
1. It involves studying a language to determine its distinctive sounds – phonemes – as it also tries to establish a set of rules that describe the set of changes that take place in these sounds when they occur in different contexts.
2. Phonology is concerned with language as a system of abstract elements – phonemes, while phonetics deals with the articulatory, acoustic and auditory aspects of sounds. The main task of phonology is to find those features of sounds, which enable us to distinguish one word from another

Question 27

23. Explain and compare Segmental Phonology and Supra-segmental Phonology.

Answer 27

1. Segmental phonology – analyses speech into the minimal functional elements of phonology -> phonemes
2. Suprasegmental (nonsegmental) phonology – which analyses functional segments higher than phonemes – syllables, tone-units, utterances

Question 28

24. What is the definition of transcription?

Answer 28

Elements of the written language in English do not represent their actual pronounciation – in Slovak the written representation is usually the same as its pronounciation, but in English:
1. the number of letters in English rarely indicates the number of sounds.
2. The same letters or letter sequences in English can be pronounced differently in different words
- This is why the phonetic alphabet was created - set of symbols taken from Roman alphabet and some new ones invented by scholars.
- The rule to be followed was one-to-one correspondence of sound and symbol – and so a one-to-one correspondence of written and spoken form.
This is a special form of a language where:
1. One written element (symbol)
2. Represents one spoken element (sound) or the abstract representation of the spoken element (phoneme)
3. And it’s called transcription
Transcription is a method of writing down speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way

Question 29

25. What is the difference between the Phonemic and the Allophonic transcription? Focus on the usage of brackets.

Answer 29

Phonemic transcription:
- we use a simple set of symbols where one symbol stands for one phoneme. The aim is to indicate only functionally relevant categories of sound.
We enclose the transcription symbols in slant brackets
Example:
/pɜːsən/ person
Allophonic (phonetic) transcription:
- we use a complicated set of symbols and diacritics which can indicate detailed sound values, the actual allophones. The aim is to capture the real, physically articulated sounds.
We enclose the transcription symbols in square brackets - [ ]
Example:
[ˈpɜː.sən] person

Question 30

26. Simple phonemic transcription follows these four principles

Answer 30

1. The transcription reflects a functional point of view
2. The minimum possible number of symbols is used
3. Symbols are used without diacritics
4. Long vowels differ from short vowels only by length mark (the differences in quality are not shown)

Question 31

27. Name the four main groups of organs of articulation (articulators)

Answer 31

When we communicate, we make use of organs whose primary physiological functions are not connected with vocal communication. It means that all of these organs, except for the vocal folds, are primary used for a purpose other than speaking. The organs which we use in communication are called organs of articulation or articulators, and they can be divided into four main groups:
1. Respiratory organs (lungs, trachea)
2. Phonatory apparatus (vocal folds)
3. Resonators (pharyngeal, oral and nasal cavities)
4. Modulating organs (mandible lips, teeth, tongue, alveolar ridge, palate, uvula)

Question 32

28. Describe how we produce egressive and ingressive pulmonic sounds.

Answer 32

Egressive pulmonic sounds:
The air is forced our of the mouth -> egressive pulmonic airstream
- The sounds produced in this way are called egressive pulmonic sounds and virtually, all English sounds are made in this way
Ingressive pulmonic sounds:
Sounds are produced by breathing the air in -> ingressive pulmonic airstream
- This type of sound is rare

Question 33

29. Name and explain the organs involved in phonatory apparatus

Answer 33

1. The larynx – casing formed of cartilage and muscle, situated in the upper part of trachea
2. The vocal folds - this organ is within the larynx and consists of two thick flaps of muscle. These pair can be brought together or parted through muscular tension.

Question 34

30. What is the glottis?

Answer 34

The opening between the vocal folds is known as the glottis. The glottis can assume different positions of openness, depending on the type of sounds produced.

Question 35

31. What are the 4 recognizable states of vocal folds? Give examples of sounds they produce:

Answer 35

1. wide apart – the glottis is open – this occurs during breathing and when producing voiceless consonants. /f, p, s/
2. loosely together - the glottis is slightly opened. This occurs during the production of the voiceless glottal fricative. /h/
3. loosely together+vibrating – the glottis is slightly opened and the air passing through it causes vibration. This occurs during the production of all voiced sounds. /a,e,i,b,d,g,v,z…/
4. tightly closed – the glottis is firmly closed – when we close it, we produce the glottal stop.

Question 36

32. Explain the notion of voicing (phonation):

Answer 36

Voicing or phonation is the process of passing the airstream through the vocal folds, resulting in audible vibration (sound).
- All sounds produced in this process are called voiced (all vowels and voiced consonants).
-The sounds produced without any vocal fold vibration are called voiceless.

Question 37

33. Outline the three ways the airstream can leave the pharynx:

Answer 37

a) The soft palate may be lowered slightly and the air escapes both through the nose and the mouth. The sounds produced like this are called nasalized sounds.
b) The soft palate is lowered and the air escapes through the nose only because there is a complete obstruction made somewhere in the mouth. The sounds produced like this are called nasal sounds.
c) The soft palate is held in raised position, and the air escapes only through the mouth. The sounds produced in this manner are called oral sounds. (All English sounds, except of nasal consonants, are made in this way )

Question 38

34. Name two categories of modulating organs. Name the organs included in each category and briefly describe their function:

Answer 38

1. THE PASSIVE MODULATING ORGANS
   Functions of these organs:
2. Teeth – upper and lower teeth – many speech sounds are formed by the contact of the tongue and upper teeth. (or sounds made with the tongue touching the front teeth are called dental )
3. Alveolar ridge – is located between the top front teeth and the hard palate. Sounds produced with the tongue touching the alveolar ridge are called alveolar.
4. The hard palate- so called the roof of the mouth, stretches between the alveolar ridge and soft palate. Sounds made with tongue touching here are called palatal.
5. THE ACTIVE MODULATING ORGANS
   Functions of these organs:
6. The tongue - most important articulator, is flexible, can be formed in many shapes. I tis divided into 5 parts: tip (apex), blade (lamina), front (pre-dorsum), back (post-dorsum), root (radix).
7. The mandible - is the lower jaw; depending on its position, it can influence the openness of speech sounds.
8. The lips - two fleshy muscular folds that together surround the opening oof the mouth. They can be pressed together – bilabial sounds /b,p,m/. The sounds made by lips touching the teeth are called labiodental. /v,f,/
9. The soft palate (velum) - is the soft part of the back portion of the palate. It plays an important role in determining the quality of sounds (oral, nasal). The sounds made by toungue touching the velum are called velar. /g,k,ng/
10. The uvula – small, conical, fleshy mass of tissue suspended from the centre of the soft palate above the back part of tongue. The sounds made by a vibration of the uvula against the back of the tongue are called uvular. This organ is not a proper active organ because it cannot be actively moved by the speaker.

Question 39

35. The peripheral auditory system is composed of three parts ….? And briefly describe the role of each part:

Answer 39

1. The outer ear
   Consists of externally visible part called pinna and the meatus:
   a) Pinna – doesn’t contribute to our hearing ability but can help us define where the sound comes from
   b) Meatus – it functions as a passageway channeling sounds to the eardrum and it acts as an acoustic resonator which amplifies the frequencies between 2000 and 4000 Hz (sounds in these frequencies are much louder at the eardrum)
2. The middle ear
   It’s purpose is to transform the sound that arrives at the outer ear into equivalent mechanical movements. It consists of the eardrum and auditory ossicles.
   a) Eardrum – small membrane at the end of the auditory ossicles (they increase the amount of acoustic energy transferred to the inner ear and protect the inner ear from very loud sounds)
3. The inner ear
   Small intricate system of cavities – the most important one is called cochlea
   a) Cochlea – fluid-filled organ responsible for converting mechanical movements into neural signals
   b) Basilar membrane – transmits the vibrations received from the auditory ossicles to the organ of Corti.

Question 40

36. Explain „lateralization“ in terms of brain functioning.

Answer 40

Brain has many different parts, but mainly is divided in two big parts - hemispheres.
- Each hemisphere is responsible for controlling different functions and is specialized for different processes. This is called lateralization.
Example:
it is mainly the left hemisphere that is responsible for controlling our language functions.