chapter six: the human body Flashcards
abdomen
the body cavity that contains the major organs of digestion and excretion, it is located below the diaphragm and above the pelvis
acetabulum
the depression on the lateral pelvis where its three component bones join, in which the femoral head fits snugly
adam’s apple
a firm prominence of cartilage that forms the upper part of the larynx, it is more prominent in men than in women, also called thyroid cartilage
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
the nucleotide involved in energy metabolism; used to store energy
adrenal glands
endocrine glands located on top of the kidneys that release adrenaline when stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system
adrenergic
pertaining to nerves that release the neurotransmitter norepinephrine, or noradrenaline (such as adrenergic nerves, adrenergic response); also pertains to the receptors acted on by norepinephrine
aerobic metabolism
metabolism that can proceed only in the presence of oxygen
agonal gasps
abnormal breathing pattern characterized by slow gasping breaths, sometimes seen in patients in cardiac arrest
alpha-adrenergic receptors
portions of the nervous system that, when stimulated, can cause constriction of blood vessels
alveoli
the air sacs of the lungs in which the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place
anaerobic metabolism
the metabolism that takes place in the absence of oxygen; the main by-product is lactic acid
anatomic position
the position of reference in which the patient stands facing forward, arms at the side, with the palms of the hands forward
aorta
the main artery leaving the left side of the heat and carrying freshly oxygenated blood to the body
appendicular skeelton
the portion of the skeletal system that comprises the arms, legs, pelvis, and shoulder girdle
appendix
a small, tubular structure that is attached to the lower border of the cecum in the lower right quadrant of the abdomen
arterioles
the smallest branches of arteries leading to the vast network of capillaries
articular cartilage
a pearly layer of specialized cartilage covering the articular surfaces (contact surfaces on the ends) of bones in synovial joints
atrium
one of the two upper chambers of the heart
autonomic nervous system
the part of the nervous system that regulates functions, such as digestion and sweating, that are not controlled voluntarily
axial skeleton
the part of the skeletons comprising the skull, spinal column, and rib cage
ball-and-socket joint
a joint that allows internal and external rotation, as well as bending
beta-adrenergic receptors
portions of the nervous system that, when stimulated, can cause an increase in the force of contraction of the heart, an increased heart rate, and bronchial dilation
biceps
the large muscle that covers the front of the humerus
bile ducts
the ducts that convey bile between the liver and the intestine
blood pressure (BP)
the pressure that the blood exerts against the walls of the arteries as it passes through them
brachial artery
the major vessel in the upper extremities that supplies blood to the arm
brain
the controlling organ of the body and center of consciousness; functions include perception, control of reactions to the environment, emotional responses, and judgment
brain stem
the area of the brain between the spinal cord and cerebrum, surrounded by the cerebellum; controls functions that are necessary for life, such as respiration
capillary vessels
the tiny blood vessels between the arterioles and venules that permit transfer of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and waste between body tissues and the blood
cardiac muscle
the heart muscle
cardiac output (CO)
a measure of the volume of blood circulated by the heart in 1 minute, calculated by multiplying the stroke volume by the heart rate
carotid artery
the major artery that supplies blood to the head and brain
cartilage
the smooth connective tissue that forms the support structure of the skeletal system and provides cushioning between bones; also forms the nasal septum and portions of the outer ear
cecum
the first part of the large intestine, into which the ileum operates
central nervous system (CNS)
the brain and spinal cord
cerebellum
one of the three major subdivisions of the brain, sometimes called the little brain; coordinates the various activities of the brain, particularly fine body movements
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
fluid produced in the ventricles of the brain that flows in the subarachnoid space and bathes the meninges
cerebrum
the largest part of the three subdivisions of the brain, sometimes called the gray matter, made up of several lobes that control movement, hearing, balance, speech, visual perception, emotions, and personality
cervical spine
the portion of the spinal column consisting of the first seven vertebrae that lie in the neck
chordae tendineae
thin bands of fibrous tissue that attach to the valves in the heart and prevent them from inverting
chyme
the substance that leaves the stomach, it is a combination of all of the eaten foods with added stomach acids
circulatory system
the complex arrangement of connected tubes, including the arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins, that moves blood, oxygen, nutrients, carbon dioxide, and cellular waste throughout the body
clavicle
the collar bone; it is lateral to the sternum and anterior to the scapula
coccyx
the last three or four vertebrae of the spine; the tail bone
coronal plane
an imaginary plane where the body is divided into front and back parts
cranium
the area of the head above the ears and eyes; the skull, the cranium contains the brain
cricoid cartilage
a firm ridge of cartilage that forms the lower part of the larynx
dead space
any portion of the airway that does contain air and cannot participate in gas exchange, such as the trachea and bronchi
dermis
the inner layer of the skin, containing hair follicles, sweat glands, nerve endings, and blood vessels
diaphragm
a muscular dome that forms the undersurface of the thorax, separating the chest from the abdominal cavity, contraction of this (and the chest wall muscles) brings airs into the lungs, relaxation allows air to be expelled from the lungs
diastole
the relaxation, or period of relaxation, of the heart, especially of the ventricles
diffusion
movement of a gas from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
digestion
the processing of food that nourishes the individual cells of the body
dorsalis pedis artery
the artery on the anterior surface of the foot between the first and second metatarsals
endocrine system
the complex message and control system that integrates many body functions, including the release of hormones
enzymes
substances designed to speed up the rate of specific biochemical reactions
epidermis
the outer layer of skin, which is made up of cells that are sealed together to form a watertight protective covering for the body
epiglottis
a thin, leaf-shaped valve that allows air to pass into the trachea but prevents food and liquid from entering
epinephrine
a hormone produced by the adrenal medulla that has a vital role in the function of the sympathetic nervous system
esophagus
a collapsible tube that extends from the pharynx to the stomach; muscle contractions propel food and liquids through it to the stomach
expiratory reverse volume
the amount of air that can be exhaled following a normal exhalation; average volume is about 1,200 mL in the average adult man
extension
the straightening of a joint
fallopian tubes
long, slender tubes that extend from the uterus to the region of the ovary on the same side and through which the ovum passes from the ovary to the uterus
femoral artery
the major artery of the thigh, a continuation of the external iliac artery, it supplies blood to the lower abdominal wall, external genitalia, and legs, can be palpated in the groin area
femoral head
the proximal end of the femur, articulating with the acetabulum to form the hip joint
femur
the thighbone; the longest and one of the strongest bones in the body
flexion
the bending of a joint
foramen magnum
a large opening at the base of the skull through which the brain connects to the spinal cord
frontal bone
the portion of the cranium that forms the forehead
gallbladder
a sac on the undersurface of the live that collects bile from the liver and discharges it into the duodenum through the common bile duct
genital system
the reproductive system in men and women
germinal layer
the deepest layer of the epidermis where new skin cells are formed
greater trochanter
a bony prominence on the proximal lateral side of the thigh, just below the hip joint
hair follicles
the small organs that produce hair
heart
a hollow muscular organ that pumps blood throughout the body
heart rate (HR)
the number of heartbeats during a specific time (usually 1 min)
hinge joints
joints that can bend and straighten but cannot rotate; they restrict motion to one plane
hormones
substances formed in specialized organs or glands and carried to another organ or group of cells in the same organism; they regulate many body functions, including metabolism, growth, and body temperature
humerus
the supporting bone of the upper arm
hydrostatic pressure
the pressure of water against the walls of its container
hypoxic drive
a “backup system” to control respiration; senses drops in the oxygen level in the blood
ilium
one of three bones that fuse to form the pelvic ring
inferior vena cava
one of the two largest veins in the body; carries blood from the lower extremities and the pelvic and the abdominal organs to the heart
inspiratory reserve volume
the amount of air that can be inhaled after a normal inhalation; the amount of air that can be inhaled in addition to the normal tidal volume
interstitial space
the space in between the cells
involuntary muscle
the muscle over which a person has no conscious control, it is found in many automatic regulating system of the body
ischium
one of three bones that fuse to form the pelvic ring
joint (articulation)
the place where two bones come into contact
joint capsule
the fibrous sac that encloses a joint
kidneys
two retroperitoneal organs that excrete the end products of metabolism as urine and regulate the body’s salt and water content
labored breathing
the use of muscles of the chest, back, and abdomen to assist in expanding the chest; occurs when air movement is impaired
lactic acid
a metabolic by-product of the breakdown of glucose that accumulates when metabolism proceeds in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic metabolism)
large intestine
the portion of the digestive tube that encircles the abdomen around the small bowel, consisting of the cecum, the colon, and the rectum, helps regulate water balance and eliminate solid waste
lesser trochanter
the projection on the medial/superior portion of the femur
ligament
a band of fibrous tissue that connects bones to bones, supports and strengthens a joint
liver
a large solid organ that lies in the right upper quadrant immediately below the diaphragm; it produces bile, stores glucose for immediate use by the body, and produces many substances that help regulate immune responses
lumbar spine
the lower part of the back, formed by the lowest five nonfused vertebrae; also called the dorsal spine
lymph
a thin, straw-colored fluid that carries oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to the cells and carries waste products of metabolism away from the cells and back into the capillaries so that they may be excreted
lymph nodes
tiny, oval-shaped structures located in various places along the lymph vessels that filter lymph
mandible
the bone of the lower jaw
manubrium
the upper quarter of the sternum
maxillae
the upper jawbones that assist in the formation of the orbit, the nasal cavity, and the palate and hold the upper teeth
medulla oblongata
nerve tissue that is continuous inferiorly with the spinal cord; serves as a conduction pathway for ascending and descending nerve tracts; coordinates heart rate, blood vessel diameter, breathing, swallowing, vomiting, coughing, and sneezing
metabolism (cellular respiration)
the biochemical processes that result in production of energy from nutrients within cells
midbrain
the part of the brain that is responsible for helping to regulate the level of consciousness
midsagittal plane (midline)
an imaginary vertical line drawn from the middle of the forehead through the nose and the umbilicus (navel) to the floor, dividing the body into equal left and right halves
minute volume
the volume of air that moves in and out of the lungs per minute; calculate by multiplying the tidal volume and respiratory rate; also called minute ventilation
motor nerves
nerves that carry information from the central nervous system to the muscles of the body
mucous membranes
the lining of the body cavities and passages that communicate directly or indirectly with the environment outside the body
mucus
the watery secretion of the mucous membranes that lubricates the body openings
musculoskeletal system
the bones and voluntary muscles of the body
myocardium
the heart muscle
nasopharynx
the part of the pharynx that lies above the level of the roof of the mouth, or palate
nervous system
the system that controls virtually all activities of the body, both voluntary and involuntary
norepinephrine
a neurotransmitter and drug sometimes used in the treatment of shock; produces vasoconstriction through its alpha-stimulator properties
occiput
the most posterior portion of the cranium
oncotic pressure
the pressure of water to move, typically into the capillary, as the result of the presence of the plasma proteins
orbit
the eye socket, made up of the maxilla and zygoma
oropharynx
a tubular structure that extends vertically from the back of the mouth to the esophagus and trachea
ovaries
female glands that produce sex hormones and ova (eggs)
pancreas
a flat, solid organ that lies below the liver and the stomach; it is a major source of digestive enzymes and produces the hormone insulin
parasympathetic nervous system
a subdivision of the autonomic nervous system, involved in control of involuntary functions, mediated largely by the vagus nerve through the chemical acetylcholine
parietal bones
the bones that lie between the temporal and occipital regions of the cranium
patella
the knee cap; a specialized bone that lies within the tendon of the quadriceps muscle
pathophysiology
the study of how normal physiologic processes are affected by disease
perfusion
the circulation of oxygenated blood within an organ or tissue in adequate amounts to meet the cells’ current needs
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
the part of the nervous system that consists of 31 pairs of spinal nerves and 12 pairs of cranial nerves; these may be sensory nerves, motor nerves, or connecting nerves
peristalsis
the wavelike contraction of smooth muscle by which the ureters or other tubular organs propel their contents
plasma
a sticky, yellow fluid that carries the blood cells and nutrients and transports cellular waste material to the organs of excretion
platelets
tiny, disc-shaped elements that are much smaller than the cells; they are essential in the initial formation of a blood clot, the mechanism that stops bleeding
pleura
the serous membranes covering the lungs and lining the thorax, completely enclosing a potential space known as the pleural space
pleural space
the potential space between the parietal pleura and the visceral pleura; described as “potential” because under normal conditions, the space does not exist
pons
an organ that lies below the midbrain and above the medulla and contains numerous important nerve fibers, including those for sleep, respiration, and the medullary respiratory center
posterior tibial artery
the artery just behind the medial malleolus; supplies blood to the foot
prostate gland
a small gland that surrounds the male urethra where it emerges from the urinary bladder; it secretes a fluid that is part of the ejaculatory fluid
pubic symphysis
a hard, bony, and cartilaginous prominence found at the midline in the lowermost portion of the abdomen where the two halves of the pelvic ring are joined by cartilage at a joint with minimal motion
pubis
one of three bones that fuse to form the pelvic ring
pulmonary artery
the major artery leading from the right ventricles of the heart to the lungs; carries oxygen-poor blood
pulmonary circulation
the flow of blood from the right ventricle through the pulmonary arteries and all of their branches and capillaries in the lungs and back to the left atrium through the venules and pulmonary veins; also called the lesser circulation
pulmonary veins
the four veins that return oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart
pulse
the wave of pressure created as the heart contracts and forces blood out the left ventricle and into the major arteries
radial artery
the major artery in the forearm; it is palpable at the wrist on the thumb side
radius
the bone on the thumb side of the forearm
rectum
the lowermost end of the colon
red blood cells
cells that carry oxygen to the body’s tissues; also called erythrocytes
renal pelvis
a cone-shaped area that collects urine from the kidneys and funnels it through the ureter into the bladder
residual volume
the air that remains in the lungs after maximal expiration
respiration
the inhaling and exhaling of air; the physiologic process that exchanges carbon dioxide from fresh air
respiratory compromise
the inability of the body to move gas effectively
respiratory system
all the structures of the body that contribute to the process of breathing, consisting of the upper and lower airways and their component parts
reticular activating system (RAS)
located in the upper brainstem; responsible for maintenance of consciousness, specifically one’s level of arousal
retroperitoneal
behind the abdominal cavity
sacroiliac joint
the connection point between the pelvis and the vertebral column
sacrum
one of the three bones (sacrum and two pelvic bones) that make up the pelvic ring; consists of five fused sacral vertebrae
sagittal (lateral) plane
an imaginary line where the body is divided into left and right parts
salivary glands
the glands that produce saliva to keep the mouth and pharynx moist
scalp
the thick skin covering the cranium, which usually bears hair
scapula
the shoulder blade
sebaceous glands
glands that produce an oily substance called sebum, which discharges along the shafts of the hairs
semen
fluid ejaculated from the penis and containing sperm
seminal vesicles
storage sacs for sperm and seminal fluid, which empty into the urethra at the prostate
sensory nerves
the nerves that carry sensations such as touch, taste, smell, heat, cold, and pain from the body to the central nervous system
shock
a condition in which the circulatory system fails to provide sufficient circulation to maintain normal cellular functions; also called hypoperfusion
skeletal muscle
muscle that is attached to bones and usually crosses at least one joint; striated, or voluntary, muscle
skeletal system
the framework of the body, composed of bones and other connective tissues, that supports and protects internal organs and other body tissues
small intestine
the portion of the digestive tube between the stomach and the cecum, consisting of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
smooth muscle
involuntary muscle; it constitutes the bulk of the gastrointestinal tract and is present in nearly every organ to regulate automatic activity
somatic nervous system
the part of the nervous system that regulates activities over which there is voluntary control
sphincters
muscles arranged in circles that are able to decrease the diameter of tubes, examples are found within rectum, bladder, and blood vessels
sphygmomanometer
a device used to measure blood pressure
spinal cord
an extension of the brain, composed of virtually all the nerves carrying messages between the brain and the rest of the body, it lies inside of and is protected by the spinal canal
sternum
the breast bone
stratum corneum
the outermost or dead layer of the skin
stroke volume (SV)
the volume of blood pumped forward with each ventricular contraction
subcutaneous tissue
tissue, largely fat, that lies directly under the dermis and serves as an insulator of the body
superior vena cava
one of the two largest veins in the body; carries blood from the upper extremities, head, neck, and chest into the heart
sweat glands
the glands that secrete sweat, located in the dermal layer of the skin
sympathetic nervous system
the adrenergic part of the autonomic peripheral nervous system responsible for the fight-or-flight response
