chapter questions Flashcards
(199 cards)
1
Q
What is the main focus of clinical Psychology?
A
- clinical psychology focuses on developing assessment strategies and interventions to deal with mental disorders and psychological distress.
2
Q
What is the purpose of the Mental Health Commission of Canada (MHCC)?
A
- the MHCC was established to address the needs of Canadians suffering from mental disorders and to promote the right to receive services and support, as well as dignity and respect for individuals with mental health problems.
3
Q
Name two initiatives of the Mental Health Commission of Canada (MHCC)
A
- two initiative of the MHCC are “Opening Minds,” which aim to reduce the stigma associated mental disorders, and “mental Health First, Aid” a program for training the public to assist individuals experiencing mental health problems or crises.
4
Q
how does evidence-based practice (EBP) in psychology work?
A
EBP involves synthesizing information from research, collected data on the patient, the clinician’s professional experience, and patient preferences to inform healthcare options for assessment, prevention, or intervention services
use of research and theory to guide (a) the variable assessed, (b) the methods and measures, and (c) the manner in which the assessment process unfolds
5
Q
What is the distinction between clinical and counselling psychology?
A
Historically, clinical psychology focused on diagnosing and treating severe psychopathology, while counselling psychology dealt with individuals facing normal life challenges. However, both fields now provide a wide range of services and can be employed in various settings.
6
Q
What role do school psychologists play in addressing students well-being?
A
School psychologists address students’ mental health, social, emotional, and medical factors within the context of learning and development. They diagnose disorders, develop school-based programs, and promote social skills, conflict resolution, and violence prevention.
7
Q
What are the primary responsibilities of psychiatrists?
A
Psychiatrists specialize in the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental illnesses. They assess physiological and biochemical factors, determine interactions between physical and emotional health, and provide psychopharmacological and psychological treatments.
8
Q
what is the role of social wokers in improving health and well-being?
A
Social workers focus on improving the health and well-being of individuals, families, groups, and communities. They engage in various activities, including policy development, counseling, therapy, advocacy, and program planning, to address social and psychological needs.
9
Q
Who were the influential figures in the early development of assessment in clinical psych?
A
Emil Kraepelin, a German psychiatrist, contributed to the classification of mental disorders, while Alfred Binet, a French psychologist, developed intelligence tests. Their work established standardization, norms, and the importance of test construction.
10
Q
What was the significance of the Army Alpha test during World War I?
A
The Army Alpha test, developed by the American Psychological Association, allowed for the evaluation of mental fitness and abilities of recruits in a group format. This marked the recognition of psychologists’ expertise in test construction and individual differences measurement.
11
Q
What are projective tests and provide examples?
A
Projective tests are based on the idea that an individual’s interpretation of a situation reveals their personality characteristics. Examples include the Rorschach Inkblot Test, which assesses interpretations of inkblots, and the House-Tree-Person Test, which analyzes drawings for psychological meaning.
12
Q
What is the difference between intelligence tests, personality tests, and projective tests?
A
Intelligence tests measure performance on a task, personality tests are based on self-description, and projective tests are predicated on the notion that an individual’s interpretation of a situation is determined by his or her personality characteristics.
13
Q
Who published the Rorschach Inkblot Test, and in which year?
A
Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach published the Rorschach Inkblot Test in 1921.
14
Q
whihc projective technique was consdiered suitable for both adults & children in assessing psychological meaning?
A
The House-Tree-Person Test was considered suitable for both adults and children in assessing the psychological meaning of qualities in a person’s drawing.
15
Q
What was the purpose of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) published by Henry Murray and Christina Morgan?
A
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) comprised 20 pictures and aimed to assess individuals by having them interpret the stories behind the pictures.
16
Q
Who was responsible for developing the Revised Examination M used in the selection and assignment of military personnel in Canada during World War II?
A
he Test Construction Committee of the Canadian Psychological Association was responsible for developing the Revised Examination M.
17
Q
What was the goal of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) published in 1943?
A
he goal of the MMPI was to provide an easily administered test that could effectively screen for psychological disturbances among adults.
18
Q
According to Paul Meehl’s review, which approach to assessment was typically inferior in accurately describing or diagnosing adults?
A
Paul Meehl’s review found that a purely clinical approach to assessment was typically inferior to a more statistically oriented approach in accurately describing or diagnosing adults.
19
Q
What change did the publication of the third edition of the DSM in the 1980s bring to psychological assessments?
A
The publication of the third edition of the DSM led to increased attention on the value of structured interview approaches to gathering diagnostic information, aiming to improve the reliability of psychiatric diagnoses.
20
Q
How did the DSM-III encourage clinicians to approach diagnosing disorders?
A
Clinicians were strongly encouraged to use scientifically established structured interviews to diagnose DSM-III disorders or, at a minimum, ensure that the necessary diagnostic criteria were met before assigning a diagnosis.
21
Q
What is clinical utility?
A
usefulness of assessment data to provide information that leads to a clinical outcome that is better (or faster or less expensive) than would be the case if the psychologist did not have the assessment data.
22
Q
What is the term used to describe evidence that a treatment was shown to work in research conditions (internal validity)?
A
The term “efficacy” is used to denote evidence that a treatment was shown to work under research conditions with an emphasis on internal validity.
23
Q
According to research using meta-analysis, what was the primary finding about the effectiveness of psychotherapy?
A
The primary finding was that psychotherapy, in general, was clearly very effective, with the average person receiving therapy being better off after therapy than 80% of people with similar problems who did not receive therapy.
24
Q
What are some ways tests can be biased?
A
o First, the test content may not be equally applicable or relevant to all cultural groups.
o Second, the pattern of validity coefficients may not be similar across groups. For example, an association between a negative attributional style and depressive symptoms may be much larger for one group than for another.
o Third, the use of a cut-off score on a scale to classify individuals may not be equally accurate across groups.
o A fourth form of bias could occur with respect to the test’s underlying structure. Researchers frequently use a statistical procedure called factor analysis to explore exactly how components of a construct relate to each other.
25
How should a psychologist conduct an assessment with a client from an ethnic minority background?
A – use measures that have been shown to be psychometrically sound for people who come from the same ethnic group as the client
B – consult published norms relevant to the client’s ethnic group in interpreting the test results
C – adopt multiple assessment methods to minimize errors that might be associated with any one method or test
If a & b is not possible, then caution must be exercised in interpreting the results
26
What is the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-IV (MCMI-IV)
- clinical measures for youth.
The MCMI-IV contains scales to assess validity, clinical personality patterns, severe personality pathology, clinical syndromes, and severe symptoms. The MCMI-IV is a 195-item true-false self-report measure designed to assess personality styles and disorders.
Problem:It is intended for use with clients seeking mental health services and is not appropriate for use with adults with no psychological problems
27
what is Personality Assessment Inventory (pai)
The PAI is a 344-item self-report measure designed for use with adults. Although the PAI has many items, it requires only a Grade 4 reading level and can be completed in under an hour. The overall reliability of the scales is superior to the inventories described thus far & has Good validity.
28
What is the most commonly used measure of normal personality?
Neo personality inventory-3
- The NEO PI-3 is based on the five-factor model of personality that is generally seen as the most scientifically supported personality theory. Because of its growing use in clinical contexts, researchers have developed and evaluated validity scales for the instrument.
29
Why have psychologists shifted from using broadband tests (personality inventories and projective tests) toward greater use of self-report checklists of behaviours and symptoms?
Instead of personality inventory and projective tests, behaviour and symptom checklists are very inexpensive and have direct and immediate relevance to treatment planning and monitoring
30
what do clinical psychologists devote their time doing?
they devote their time to providing psycholgical services, conducting research and providing clinical training, and consulting with other professionals and agencies.
31
what activities do clinical psychologists engage in?
Assessment, research, psychotherapy, prevention & consultation.
32
What assessment methods do clinical psychologists use to reach clinical formulation?
interviews self-report measures, observations, performance (or skill) tasks, and reports from informants other than patients.
33
What is the goal of assessment and diagnosis in clinical psychology?
The goal is to evaluate the psychological functioning of individuals or relationships, understand their current level of psychosocial functioning, and provide a concise statement about the nature of a person's disorder or dysfunction. It also aids the psychologists in being able to search scientific literature to update their knowledge of etiology, prognosis and beneficial treatments
34
What is the most common type of intervention provided by clinical psychologists?
Psychotherapy is the most common type of intervention provided by clinical psychologists, with a majority (40%) of their time devoted to it.
35
What are some common techniques used in psychotherapy?
Techniques include identifying or challenging thoughts, relating thoughts to feelings, focusing on emotions, gathering information, and guiding or directing the client. Additionally, most people attend less than 10 sessions.
36
What is North America’s most popular orientation of therapy?
Cognitive behavioural approach
37
Cog-behv psychologists versus psychodynamic approaches – what are the differences?
Cog-beh psychologists are more likely to spend more time providing psychoeducation by informing the client about the nature of the presenting problem. More encouragement for asking questions, collaboration, engagement in certain activities, teach coping skills. The psychodynamic approach is more likely to talk about childhood experiences related to clients' reactions, explore dysfunctional patterns of behaviour and its expectations
38
What is the role of clinical psychologists in prevention? // Prevention activities goals?
Clinical psychologists can develop, implement, and evaluate prevention programs aimed at reducing risk factors and enhancing protective factors for various disorders.
39
What are risk factors and what are protective factors?
Risk factors – trait of an individual to their circumstances that increase the likelihood of the dev of a disorder
Protective factors – individual or enviro factors that lessen the likelihood of eventually developing a disease or disorder
40
What is clinical consultation, and what are its types?
Clinical consultation involves providing information, advice, and recommendations about assessing, understanding, or treating a client. It can be clinical consultation (focused on clients) or organizational consultation (focused on developing programs or evaluating healthcare services).
41
What is a needs assessment in clinical psychology? Consultation to agencies often falls into one of several categories, what are they?
A needs assessment is conducted to determine the extent of an unmet healthcare need in an identified population, such as ensuring new immigrants are aware of available healthcare services. Once the psychologist understands the cope of the need for a population, they may be hired to create a program to educate a target pop about the available services.
42
What is Policy consultation?
To determine if an agent's policy is congruent with its mission or consistent with professional standards or scientific evidence
43
Why is research important in clinical psychology?
Research helps guide the provision of psychological services and allows clinical psychologists to stay updated on relevant knowledge, treatments, and best practices.
44
What teaching and supervision activities do clinical psychologists engage in?
Clinical psychologists engage in teaching undergraduate and graduate courses in psychology, as well as supervising students in the provision of psychological services.
45
What is clinical supervision, and in what settings does it occur?
Clinical supervision involves students providing services under the close supervision of licensed clinical psychologists. It occurs in various settings, including hospitals, residential treatment centers, rehabilitation centers, and psychiatric hospitals.
46
What is the role of clinical psychologists in administration & institutional settings?
In private practice, clinical psychologists handle activities necessary for maintaining an efficient office. In institutional settings such as hospitals and universities, psychologists are expected to contribute to the overall running of the institution by serving on committees and assuming management positions
47
How is clinical psychology founded?
Clinical psychology is founded on the application of scientific reasoning to address emotional, behavioral, and neurological problems.
48
Why is it important for clinical psychologists to maintain knowledge of research?
Clinical psychologists need to stay updated with relevant research to inform their professional practices and provide evidence-based services.
49
Do most clinical psychologists agree that professional services should be informed by research evidence?
Yes, most clinical psychologists agree that professional services should be informed by research evidence.
50
When do disagreements arise regarding the role of research evidence in clinical practice?
Disagreements may arise when discussing how research should inform or determine practice and what constitutes valid research evidence.
51
What does an evidence-based approach involve?
An evidence-based approach involves using research evidence as a basis for decision-making about clinical services.
52
What should psychologists do when no research is available to guide their services?
When no research is available, psychologists should take a systematic, questioning, and self-critical approach to evaluate the value of a psychological service and monitor its effects to determine whether it is primarily beneficial or harmful.
53
What is the purpose of theoretical orientation in clinical practice?
Theoretical orientation directs a clinician's attention to the most relevant phenomena and their possible explanations while diverting attention from aspects of a client's experience deemed irrelevant.
54
What is the significance of adopting a scientific position in clinical psychology?
Adopting a scientific position involves putting ideas to the test and being open to the possibility that some ideas that seem sensible may be incorrect.
55
What prompted the creation of a code of ethics in psychology?
The code of ethics in psychology was created in response to the unethical conduct observed during the Nazi era.
56
What is informed consent in psychology?
Informed consent is an ethical principle that ensures individuals receiving psychological services or participating in research understand what will be done and agree to participate.
57
What are the four ethical principles outlined in the Code of Ethics?
The four ethical principles in the Code of Ethics are respect for the dignity of persons, responsible caring, integrity in relationships, and responsibility to society.
58
How do ethics and science interact in clinical psychology?
Ethics provides fundamental principles that guide the way psychologists work, while science ensures that their practices are informed by research evidence and a systematic approach to decision-making.
59
Why is it crucial for clinical psychologists to monitor the effects of their services?
Monitoring the effects of services helps determine whether they are primarily beneficial or harmful, allowing psychologists to make necessary adjustments and improvements..
60
How do theoretical orientations influence clinical practice?
Theoretical orientations guide clinical practice by shaping a clinician's perspective on relevant phenomena, potential explanations, and treatment approaches.
61
Why is it necessary to search for common elements of human behaviour?
It is necessary to search for common elements of human behavior in order to describe, understand, and predict the responses of others. This helps us navigate through life and interact effectively with friends, family members, and co-workers.
62
How does classification help in managing the complexities of life?
To manage the complexities of life, we tend to categorize, classify, and search for patterns.
Without a way to conceptualize and categorize the reactions of friends, family members, and co-workers, it would be impossible for us to navigate through life.
63
What are the two key aspects of the adequacy of classification systems?
The two key aspects of the adequacy of classification systems are validity and utility. Validity refers to the effectiveness of the principles used in classifying an entity in capturing its nature, while utility refers to the usefulness of the resulting classification scheme.
64
What is the difference between a categorical and a dimensional approach to classification?
In a categorical approach, an entity is determined to be either a member of a category or not. It assumes a qualitative difference between entities in a category and those outside of it (living or non-living- having the disorder or not having it). On the other hand, a dimensional approach classifies entities based on the extent to which they possess certain characteristics or properties, focusing on quantitative differences and arranging entities on a continuum (weight & height).
65
Thomas Achenbacks work yielded two broad dimensions of problems within symptoms that tend to co-occur. What were they?
Externalziing and internalziing problems. Externalizing problems are acting-out behaviors such as yelling, destroying things, stealing, and showing aggression. Internalizing problems refer to feelings of sadness, worry, and withdrawn behavior.
66
How do people categorize people?
People use a diagnostic system. Whether based on a categorical or a dimensional approach, a diagnostic system is a classification based on rules used to organize and understand diseases and disorders
When these decision-making rules are applied to the symptoms of a specific individual, the classification system yields a diagnosis that concisely describes the symptoms that comprise the person’s condition
67
Give 5 purposes of a diagnostic system for mental disorders
Provide a concise description of essential aspects of the patient’s condition
Reflect best current scientific knowledge of psychopathology
Provide a common language for clinicians, researchers, and, increasingly, patients to use in discussing mental health conditions
Indicate possible causes of the current condition (i.e., etiology)
Indicate possible future developments in the condition (i.e., prognosis)
68
Who is Emil Kraepelin and what did he examine?
Emil Kraepelin, whose initial examination of dementia praecox (now called schizophrenia) and manic-depressive insanity (now called bipolar mood disorder) laid the foundation for current psychiatric diagnostic systems.
69
How does the prototype model approach impact psychiatric diagnosis?
The prototype model approach recognizes that members of a diagnostic category may differ in the degree to which they represent the concepts underlying the category. This means that not all individuals receiving the same diagnosis have exactly the same set of symptoms, allowing for more flexibility in understanding psychiatric disorders.
70
What are the purposes of a diagnostic system for mental disorders?
The purposes of a diagnostic system for mental disorders include providing a concise description of the patient's condition, reflecting scientific knowledge of psychopathology, providing a common language for discussions, indicating possible causes and future developments, guiding evaluation and treatment, facilitating research, and determining reimbursement and eligibility for services.
71
How does context influence the determination of whether a behavior is abnormal?
The determination of whether a behavior is abnormal requires knowledge of the context in which it occurs. Factors such as age, cultural norms, developmental milestones, and specific circumstances play a significant role in interpreting and evaluating behavior as normal or abnormal.
72
What is the developmental psychopathology approach?
The developmental psychopathology approach examines problem behavior in relation to the milestones specific to each stage of development. It emphasizes that biological and psychological systems are constantly changing and considers major developmental transitions and disruptions to normal patterns. It relies on empirical knowledge of normal development to understand difficulties at different stages of life.
73
How does the lack of valid biological markers affect the diagnosis of mental disorders?
Unlike physical disorders, mental disorders lack valid biological markers for diagnosis. Classification systems for mental disorders rely primarily on the observation of symptoms and self-report data from clients. This poses challenges in diagnosing mental disorders and underscores the need for ongoing research to develop a more robust diagnostic system based on biological and psychological markers.
74
Why was childhood depression overlooked in the past? What was this an example of?
Childhood depression was overlooked in the past due to theoretical models and assumptions that believed children were incapable of experiencing depression. Psychoanalytic models suggested that depression was a disorder of the superego, which develops later in childhood. Also, the expression of sadness in children differs from adults, making it challenging to detect depression using adult-focused behavioral models.
- This was an example of relying on scientific evidence, not just value judgments.
For example, beliefs based on theoretical models of human functioning may, at times, interfere with an ability to see forms of psychological distress and suffering.
75
What is the definition of a mental disorder according to the American Psychiatric Association?
A mental disorder is a syndrome characterized by clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior that reflects a dysfunction in the psychological, biological, or developmental processes underlying mental functioning.
76
What distinguishes a mental disorder from an expectable response to a common stressor?
An expectable or culturally approved response to a common stressor or loss is not considered a mental disorder. Mental disorders are usually associated with significant distress or disability in social, occupational, or other important activities.
77
What is the concept of harmful dysfunction in relation to mental disorders?
Harmful dysfunction refers to the idea that the behaviors associated with a mental disorder are dysfunctional and cause harm to the individual or those around them. Both criteria of dysfunction and harm need to be satisfied for a diagnosis of a mental disorder. It is also needed for diagnosis.
78
What does dyscontrol refer to in the context of mental disorders?
Dyscontrol refers to the requirement that the impairment resulting from a mental disorder must be involuntary or not readily controlled. This addition is important, especially in legal contexts, to differentiate between intentional unacceptable behavior and a mental disorder
79
What were the most common mental disorders found in a Canadian survey?
The most common mental disorders reported in the Canadian survey were alcohol or illicit drug dependence, mood disorders (major depressive disorder or bipolar disorder), and generalized anxiety disorder.
80
There is a consensus among psychopathology researchers for which 3 factors are involved in mental disorders. What can change through life?
there is a consensus among psychopathology researchers that the presence of a mental disorder is determined by a blend of biological, psychological, and social factors. The contribution of these factors may also change over the course of life: for example, in a longitudinal study of common fears, the impact of genetic factors that influenced fear intensity during childhood tended to diminish over time, whereas the impact of life experiences increased over time
81
How does the biopsychosocial model explain the etiology of mental disorders?
The biopsychosocial model suggests that mental disorders are influenced by a blend of biological, psychological, and social factors. The specific contribution of each factor may vary from disorder to disorder and may change over the course of an individual's life.
82
What changes were introduced in the DSM-III that significantly impacted the field of mental health?
The DSM-III introduced a more explicit and concrete approach to diagnostic criteria, moving away from psychodynamic theories and focusing on behavioral descriptions of disorders. It also involved extensive field trials to improve the reliability of psychiatric diagnoses.
83
What are some controversial changes introduced in the DSM-5?
Some controversial changes in the DSM-5 include allowing a diagnosis of depression after bereavement, revisions to diagnostic criteria, and the inclusion of cultural and ethnic considerations to enhance the relevance and validity of the diagnostic system.
84
What approach does the DSM 5 use?
Largely based on a categorical approach to classification. Additionally, DSM-5 adopts a lifespan approach, listing disorders more frequently diagnosed in childhood at the beginning of the manual and disorders more frequently diagnosed among older adults at the end of the manual.
85
How does the DSM-5 address cultural diversity in its diagnostic system?
The DSM-5 includes information on cultural variations in clinical presentations, descriptions of culture-bound syndromes, and a section on the cultural formulation to assist clinicians in making culturally sensitive and appropriate diagnoses.
86
What is the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD)?
The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) is a statistical classification system developed by the World Health Organization (WHO) that categorizes and codes all health conditions.
87
What is one primary use of the ICD?
One primary use of the ICD is to provide population-level data on different illnesses and causes of death.
88
The ICD – who found it? How does it differ from DSM?
Created by WHO (psychiatrists) & differs because it is international- uses data from 117 countries whereas DSM-5 is for NA only.
89
How does ICD-10-CM relate to DSM-5?
In broad terms, ICD-10-CM is compatible with DSM-5, and numerical codes are provided for each disorder described in DSM-5. However, there are some differences in diagnostic classes and specific diagnoses between the two systems.
90
What is the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF)?
The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) is a companion classification system to the ICD developed by the World Health Organization. It provides a system for describing health and health-related conditions, including coding for body functions, body structures, activities, participation, and environmental factors.
91
What is the focus of ICD-11 in terms of clinical utility?
ICD-11 aims to enhance clinical utility and has undergone considerable research on how clinicians conceptualize mental disorders and understand their interrelations. The results of these studies are being used to shape the way mental disorders are described and organized in ICD-11.
92
What are some limitations of diagnostic systems?
Some limitations of diagnostic systems include overdiagnosing mental disorders, difficulties in defining abnormality, and concerns about the medicalization of ordinary life.
93
How prevalent is comorbidity among individuals with mental disorders?
Comorbidity, which refers to meeting criteria for two or more disorders simultaneously, is substantial among individuals with mental disorders. Studies have shown that a significant proportion of individuals with mental disorders meet criteria for multiple disorders at the same time.
94
How does comorbidity impact psychosocial functioning and treatment outcomes?
Individuals with comorbid conditions tend to experience more severe impairment in daily life functioning, have a chronic history of mental
95
What is diagnostic reliability and how is it evaluated?
Diagnostic reliability refers to the consistency and agreement between different clinicians in assigning diagnoses. It is typically evaluated using the kappa statistic, which corrects for agreements due to chance. However, evaluating reliability in real-life settings can be challenging due to the influence of the clinician's decision-making process.
96
What are the challenges associated with diagnostic inter-rater reliability?
One challenge is accurately identifying uncommon conditions, as the less frequently a disorder occurs, the more likely clinicians may disagree about its presence. Another challenge is the reliance on a diagnostic system based on categories rather than dimensions, which can negatively affect reliability. Additionally, the evaluation of reliability using a single recorded interview may not directly address the consistency of diagnostic determinations when clinicians interview the client separately.
97
How does the polythetic nature of most disorders contribute to problems with reliability?
The polythetic nature of disorders means that the same diagnosis can be applied to individuals with a range of identical and different symptoms. This variability in symptom profiles can affect the reliability of diagnoses and hinder the understanding of treatment responsiveness based on specific symptom profiles.
98
What is diagnostic validity, and how is it related to mental disorders?
Diagnostic validity refers to the extent to which a classification system accurately represents the nature of a disorder. Many mental disorders have been criticized for lacking diagnostic validity, especially those without clear biological causes.
99
What is comorbidity, and why is it important to consider?
Comorbidity refers to the co-occurrence of two or more disorders in an individual. It is important to consider because individuals with comorbid disorders tend to have more severe impairment, chronic history of mental health problems, physical health problems, and may require more complex treatment planning and delivery of services.
100
What is the difference between categorical and dimensional classification of mental disorders?
Categorical classification treats mental disorders as discrete entities with clear boundaries, while dimensional classification recognizes the possibility of a continuum that includes both clinical symptoms and subclinical distress. Research suggests that a dimensional approach may better represent the nature of mental disorders.
101
What evidence supports the use of dimensional models for understanding mental disorders?
Studies have found evidence for both categorical and dimensional features in mental disorders. Research on depression, for example, has shown evidence for both a categorical disorder and a continuum that includes subclinical and clinical symptoms. Additionally, studies have identified internalizing and externalizing dimensions that underlie various mental disorders, and a general psychopathology factor ("p") that influences multiple factors and predicts poor developmental outcomes.
102
What do psychologists have to apply in research settings as well as clinical settings?
Psychologists are expected to apply the general principles (respect for the dignity of persons, responsible caring, integrity in relationships, and responsibility to society) in a research context just as they would in other parts of their professional role.
103
What information is needed about the informed consent process?
The form asks for a copy of the consent to research form. It also inquires about the steps taken to ensure there is no coercion to participate in the research and whether requests for participants and research descriptions are done respectfully and in a culturally appropriate manner.
104
What are the different types of validity and what do they refer to?
nternal validity: The extent to which interpretations drawn from study results can be justified and alternative interpretations can be reasonably ruled out.
- External validity: The extent to which interpretations drawn from study results can be generalized beyond the specific study's narrow boundaries.
- Statistical conclusion validity: The extent to which the results of a study are accurate and valid based on the statistical procedures used in the research.
105
What are the threats to internal validity of a study?
History → influence of events from outside the context of the study
Maturation → Changes in the participants due to their psychological or physical development
Testing → repeated testing may effect results due to their familiarity with test
Instrumentation → In longitudinal studies, changes in the definition of constructs and in their measurement can make the interpretation of changes in participants’ responses much more difficult, if not impossible
Statistical Regression → Extreme scores on measures, both high and low, tend to be less extreme upon retesting. This may mean that changes in scores in a study may be due to regression rather than to an experimental manipulation
Selection Biases → This threat involves the effect that systematic differences in recruiting participants or assigning participants to experimental conditions may have on the outcome of the study
Attrition → loss of ps in a study over time
106
What are the threats to the External Validity of a Study?
Sample Characteristics: External validity can be limited because of the degree to which the characteristics of the research participants, such as their sociodemographic and psychological characteristics, map onto other samples and populations of interest.
Stimulus Characteristics and Settings: Aside from the participants, features of the study such as the institutional setting and the characteristics of those involved in the conduct of the study (e.g., therapists in a treatment study) may constrain the generalizability of obtained results.
Reactivity of Research Arrangements: By virtue of being in a study, participants may respond differently than they would in other contexts. This can severely limit the extent to which the results of the study provide information about how people behave outside of the research context.
Reactivity of Assessment: Participants’ awareness that their behaviours, moods, attitudes, etc. are being monitored may influence how they respond in the study, and these alterations in response may not be consistent with their responses once the study is completed.
Timing of Measurement: The decision about when to measure variables may result in conclusions that are not true for all time points (e.g., observed effects that appear stable over time may in fact not be stable between measurement periods).
moderator: a variable that influences the strength of the relation between a predictor variable and a criterion variable
mediator: a variable that explains the mechanism by which a predictor variable influences a criterion variable
structural equation modelling: a comprehensive statistical procedure that involves testing all components of a theoretical model.
107
What is internal consistency reliability?
Internal consistency reliability refers to the degree to which elements of a measure, such as items on a test, are homogeneous. It assesses the extent to which the items within a measure are consistent and measure the same underlying construct. Measures with high internal consistency reliability indicate that the items are highly correlated with each other, suggesting they are measuring the same thing.
108
What is clinical significance?
Clinical significance refers to the practical or meaningful impact of the results obtained from a study. In addition to statistical significance, clinical significance considers whether the observed changes or effects are large enough to make a meaningful difference in participants' daily functioning or real-world outcomes. It examines whether the results have practical importance beyond statistical significance.
109
What is a meta-analysis?
A meta-analysis is a set of statistical procedures used to quantitatively summarize the results of a research domain. It involves combining the findings from multiple studies on a specific topic to provide an overall estimate of the effect size. Meta-analysis allows researchers to examine patterns, identify consistencies or discrepancies across studies, and derive more reliable and generalizable conclusions.
110
What is the difference between psychological assessment and other types of assessment?
Psychological assessment differs from other types of assessment by involving a systematic collection of data on a person's history, physical, social, and cultural environments, as well as multiple types of data from various sources and perspectives.
111
What are the goals of psychological assessments?
Psychological assessments are undertaken to address specific goals, such as evaluating cognitive abilities, identifying characteristics and behaviors, determining emotional impairments, making recommendations, and formulating treatment plans. // (a) evaluating a child’s cognitive abilities to determine whether the child is eligible for remedial services; (b) identifying the characteristics and behaviours associated with an adolescent’s repeated social rejection, so that a treatment plan can be devised to help improve the youth’s social functioning; or (c) determining the extent of emotional impairment
112
What is evidence-based assessment (EBA) in psychological evaluation?
is an approach to psychological evaluation that uses research and theory to guide (a) the variables assessed, (b) the methods and measures used, and (c) the manner in which the assessment process unfolds
113
What is the purpose of treatment planning in psychological assessment?
Treatment planning involves using information about the client's context, diagnoses, and life circumstances, along with scientific literature on psychotherapy, to develop a proposed course of action that addresses the client's needs and circumstances.
114
What are Assessment-Focused Services versus Intervention-Focused Services?
Assessment-focused services are conducted primarily to provide information that can be used to address a person’s current or anticipated psychosocial deficits. ie) stand-alone services. Examples include child custody evaluations to determine the best parenting arrangements for children whose parents are separating or divorcing. intervention-focused assessment services, the psychological assessment is not a stand-alone service but is conducted as a first step in providing an effective intervention.
115
What is screening in the context of mental health?
Screening refers to a procedure used to identify individuals who may have significant clinical issues or who are at risk of developing such problems.
116
How does screening differ from diagnosis?
It's important to understand that screening tools are not the same as diagnostic tools. While screening can help identify individuals who are at risk, scoring high on a screening instrument does not automatically mean that a person meets the diagnostic criteria for a specific condition. Further evaluation is typically required for an accurate diagnosis.
117
What other term is used for case formulation?
the term psycho-diagnosis
118
What’s included in a case formulation?
case formulation is now more commonly used to describe the use of assessment data to develop a comprehensive and clinically relevant conceptualization of a patient’s psychological functioning. Typically, a case formulation provides information on the patient’s life situation, current problems, and a set of hypotheses linking psychosocial factors with the patient’s clinical condition.
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What is a prognosis?
Prognosis refers to the use of assessment data, in combination with relevant empirical literature, to make predictions about the future course of a patient’s psychological functioning. Psychological assessment always implies some form of prediction about the patient’s future.
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What is one of the biggest challenges for clinicians?
One of the biggest challenges for clinicians is to predict possible client outcomes as accurately as possible.
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What is the base rate of a problem or diagnosis?
that is, the frequency with which the problem/diagnosis occurs in the population. In a nutshell, the less frequently a problem occurs, the more likely a prediction error will occur
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What is a true negative versus true positive?
This can mean either that the prediction that an event will occur was accurate (true positive) or that the prediction of a non-event was accurate (e.g., that no diagnosis was warranted or that a specific event such as a suicide attempt would not occur—true negative). (Predicting that an eating disorder won’t make this person suicidal and that is the case so it is a true negative).
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What is a false positive versus fasle negative?
A false positive occurs when the psychologist predicts that an event will occur, but in fact, it does not occur (e.g., the psychologist diagnoses ADHD in a child who does not have the disorder). Conversely, a false negative occurs when an event occurs that was not predicted by the psychologist (e.g., the psychologist fails to diagnose someone who has a personality disorder).
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What is sensitivity?
Sensitivity refers to the number of times an event is predicted across cases compared with the total number of times that the event actually occurs. More simply, sensitivity is the proportion of true positives identified by the assessment.
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What is specificity?
specificity deals with the prediction of non-events. It refers to the number of times a non-event is predicted across cases compared with the total number of times that no event occurred; alternatively, it can be considered as the relative proportion of true negatives.
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specificity vs. sensitivity
sensitivity provides information on how well the assessment procedures were able to detect future suicide attempts, and specificity provides information on how well the assessment procedures were able to identify individuals who would not attempt suicide.
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What are the key considerations in treatment monitoring during psychological interventions?
Treatment monitoring involves evaluating elements of the treatment process and changes in psychological functioning. It helps psychologists make adjustments to the treatment plan based on the patient's response to treatment.
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Treament monitoring versus treatment evaluation/outcome
Data gathered for treatment monitoring can affect treatment services provided to an individual client, but data gathered for treatment outcome purposes can yield information relevant to an entire psychological practice or service.
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What are the psychometric elements that define a scientifically sound and clinically useful psychological test?
The psychometric elements include standardization (consistency in administration and scoring), reliability (consistency of results), validity (measurement of what it purports to measure), and norms (comparison to relevant populations).
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What are the ethical considerations in psychological assessment?
Ethical considerations in psychological assessment include maintaining confidentiality, informing clients about limits to confidentiality, and ensuring clients have access to their health records in most jurisdictions.
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What is the distinction between psychological assessment and psychological testing?
Psychological assessment refers to the entire process of inquiry, which includes psychological testing as a part of that process. Psychological testing involves using specific devices to gather behavioral samples, assign scores, and interpret those scores by comparing them to others.
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What is internal consistency?
consistency of the test, including whether all aspects of the test contribute in a meaningful way to the data obtained
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Why is it important to consider cultural differences when using psychological tests?
Cultural differences must be considered because the validity of a test may vary across different ethnic groups, and assumptions of a test's validity for one group may not hold true for another group.
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What are the main categories of test norms used in psychological assessment?
The main categories of test norms include percentile ranks (indicating the percentage of scores below a given score), standard scores, and developmental norms used for comparing scores within the general population or specific subgroups.
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What are the most commonly used clinical assessments by psychologists?
Interviews and observations are the most commonly used clinical assessments by psychologists.
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What role do interviews play in psychological assessments?
Interviews play an integral role in both stand-alone assessments and assessments that are part of the delivery of psychological services. They are the most common way to gather information needed for diagnosis.
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What specific objectives are addressed in assessment interviews?
The specific objectives of assessment interviews include obtaining information necessary to formulate a diagnosis, develop a case formulation, and determine treatment options. They also aim to review specific content areas, ensure sufficient information is gathered in a relatively brief time period, and address the main presenting problems.
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What are the specific therapy objectives in interviews?
The specific therapy objectives in interviews are to guide and promote behavioral, cognitive, and emotional change. They focus on specific issues, explore client understanding, encourage alternative ways of viewing problems, and develop change strategies.
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What ethical issues are associated with confidentiality in interviews?
The limits of confidentiality are important ethical considerations in interviews. Psychologists are bound to respect the client's privacy and must not discuss details with other people without the client's permission. However, there are legal obligations to break confidentiality when a person's safety is at risk or when child protection laws require reporting suspicions of child abuse.
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How do unstructured assessment interviews differ from regular conversations?
Unstructured assessment interviews differ from regular conversations in various ways. While regular conversations can take place anywhere and have no set duration, assessment interviews are usually conducted in an office, are private, and follow a goal-directed, agenda-driven format. Assessment interviews keep to relevant themes, whereas regular conversations may repeat details in other conversations and be more free-flowing. Because an assessment interview is not a regular conversation, the client may feel more at ease in discussing painful or embarrassing issues than he or she would be willing to discuss in chats with friends
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What is the difference between open and closed questions in interviews?
Open questions allow elaborate responses and cannot be answered with a simple yes or no. They encourage the client to give more complex answers and do not suggest a particular response. Closed questions, on the other hand, can be answered with a single word or brief, less ambiguous answers. They allow for rapid coverage of many topics.
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: Why were semi-structured interviews developed?
Semi-structured interviews were developed to address the problem of poor inter-rater reliability in assigning diagnoses. These interviews have a specific format for asking questions and a specific sequence in which questions are asked, allowing the interviewer to follow up with additional questions that help confirm or rule out possible diagnoses.
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What are some examples of structured diagnostic interviews?
The Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5 (SCID-5) is the most widely used clinical interview in North America and is designed to permit diagnosis of a broad spectrum of DSM-5 disorders. Another example is the Anxiety and Related Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-5, which focuses on anxiety and related disorders and includes versions for adults and children.
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What are 2 Other methods invented for children's interviews?
Using two puppets and one narrates, “i am shy when i meet new ppl” and the other says the opposite. The child is asked to show which pipette they are similar to. Another example = Children are shown a series of drawings and asked whether or not they would behave like the target child
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What are emotional reactions in interviews?
are statements related to the client’s non-verbal behavior and to the content of the responses that focus attention on the client’s affect
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What is culturally sensitive interviewing?
Culturally sensitive interviewing involves considering the client's cultural background and social network when exploring their presenting problems, understanding the meanings behind these problems, and finding appropriate avenues for assistance. Clinicians must be sensitive to factors such as ethnicity, socioeconomic status, region, and spirituality that may influence the client's experience and behavior. It requires avoiding microaggressions and being aware of cultural blind spots.
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What are some examples of needing to be snesitve to cultures due to differences?
Cultures vary in the degree of importance that is paid to punctuality—arriving late to an interview may be a sign of disorganization and lack of motivation within some groups. But it may simply reflect a more casual attitude toward time in others. OR it would be an error to interpret an averted gaze as evidence of avoidance, as it may simply represent a respectful stance toward an authority figure.
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To define problems and goals, what skills do psychologists need?
Psychologist must have good understanding of normative behavior. For example, in assessing a child who may meet diagnostic criteria for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), the psychologist must decide whether the child’s activity level, impulsivity, and attention span are within normal limits for a child that age or are unusual. Furthermore, they need to know how to sue gentle persistence to guide form general and vague to more defined definitions.
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What actions are taken for clients assessed as having low suicide risk?
For clients assessed as having low suicide risk, it is important to ensure they have access to resources for immediate support. This can include providing emergency numbers for suicide helplines and local hospitals, emphasizing the importance of reaching out for help in times of crisis.
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What are some considerations when conducting couple interviews?
When conducting couple interviews, it is important for the clinician to balance both partners' perspectives and ensure each partner has the opportunity to express their thoughts and concerns. Good interpersonal skills and flexibility are essential for managing potential conflicts and fostering a safe and constructive environment.
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How does a power differential within a couple impact the interview process?
A power differential within a couple can influence the interview process by affecting what is said and how much each partner is willing to share. The clinician needs to be aware of this dynamic and ensure that both partners feel heard and validated, while also addressing any power imbalances that may exist.
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How does the psychologist create a comfortable environment for children during interviews?
Psychologists aim to create a comfortable environment for children during interviews by making the conversation feel more like a casual conversation rather than a formal assessment. They may use age-appropriate language, explain the purpose of the interview, and emphasize that there are no right or wrong answers. It is important to establish trust and provide reassurance to alleviate any pressure the child may feel.
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How does the type of conversation differ based on the child's age?
The type of conversation differs based on the child's age. For preschool-aged children, discussions may focus on their immediate environment and everyday experiences. With elementary school children, questions about their life, activities, and relationships can provide valuable insights. As children get older, conversations can delve deeper into their experiences, patterns of behavior, and emotional understanding, exploring how others might feel in certain situations.
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Why is it useful to use special events or occasions relevant to children in interviews?
Using special events or occasions that are relevant to children, such as Halloween or the beginning of school, can provide a context for discussion and make it easier for them to engage in conversation. These familiar and relatable topics can help children feel more comfortable and encourage them to share their thoughts and experiences.
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Why is it important to observe the client in both preferred and non-preferred settings?
Observing the client in both preferred and non-preferred settings allows for a more comprehensive assessment of their behavior. Preferred settings may not elicit problem behaviors or challenges that the client may experience in other contexts. By observing the client in different situations, psychologists can gain a more holistic understanding of the client's functioning and how they adapt to various environments.
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Can observations alone be used to diagnose or determine the absence of difficulties?
No, observations alone cannot be used to diagnose or determine the absence of difficulties. Observations are just one part of the assessment process and should be combined with information gathered from interviews, testing, and other assessment methods. The data collected through observations can contribute to the overall understanding of the client's strengths and weaknesses, but it is essential to consider multiple sources of information to form a comprehensive diagnosis or assessment.
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How can observations be ethically influenced by the psychologist's background and interpretations?
Ethical guidelines require psychologists to be aware of how their own background and biases can influence their interactions with others and their interpretations of behavior. Cultural norms and practices may vary, and what may be considered normative in one culture may be interpreted differently in another. Psychologists need to be mindful of these influences to ensure that their observations are objective and unbiased.
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How can observations complement interviews in the assessment process?
Observations can provide important data about the client's behavior, attention level, activity level, and impulsivity that may not be easily obtained through interviews alone. They can help generate hypotheses and confirm or attenuate the evolving picture of the client's strengths and weaknesses when combined with other assessment data.
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What are objective personality tests and why are they called objective?
Objective personality tests are self-report tests that can be scored objectively, always using the same scoring system. They are called objective because the scoring does not rely on subjective interpretation and can be consistently applied.
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What are behavior checklists and how are they used in personality assessment?
Behavior checklists are lists of behaviors that are rated for frequency, intensity, or duration. They are used in personality assessment to gather information about an individual's behaviors and their characteristics. These checklists can provide valuable data for assessing personality traits.
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What are projective personality tests and how do they differ from objective personality tests?
Projective personality tests require drawings or a response to ambiguous stimuli, based on the assumption that responses reveal information about personality structure. Unlike objective personality tests, projective tests involve more subjective interpretation of the responses and can be easily faked.
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What is the Person Situation Debate, and why did it arise?
The Person Situation Debate revolves around the question of whether measures of personality traits can accurately predict individual differences among people or the behavior of an individual. The debate started with Walter Mischel, who found that the link between trait scores and actual behavior rarely exceeded a correlation of .30. This raised questions about the clinical value of personality measures and emphasized the role of contextual factors in influencing behavior.
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Why did clinicians question the value of personality measure after Mischels work?
Because it conceded with the rising influence of behavioral approaches to treatment. It now appeared that variability across situations co-exists with stability across time so having information on BOTH situational traits and personality traits can enhance the prediction of human behavior
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What is self-presentation bias, and how is it addressed in personality inventories?
Self-presentation bias refers to the tendency of individuals to present themselves in a particular light, which can influence their responses on personality inventories. To address this bias, many personality inventories include validity scales designed to detect faking good (emphasizing positive characteristics), faking bad also known as malingering (emphasizing negative traits), or inconsistent or random responding. These validity scales help identify potential response biases.
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How should a psychologist conduct an assessment with a client from an ethnic minority background?
When assessing a client from an ethnic minority background, psychologists should consider several approaches. They should use measures that have been shown to be psychometrically sound for people from the same ethnic group as the client. Consulting published norms relevant to the client's ethnic group can aid in interpreting test results. Additionally, adopting multiple assessment methods can help minimize errors associated with any one method or test. If cultural-specific norms are not available, caution must be exercised in interpreting the results.
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How do people test memory malingering?
It was designed to assess whether an individual with established or suspected neurological impairments is exaggerating his or her memory deficits. This test has been demonstrated to accurately detect almost half of the individuals attempting to simulate memory problems.
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Do psychologists advocate the use of projective tests? Why or why not?
To avoid the problem of intentional misrepresentation, many clinical psychologists have advocated the use of projective personality tests, reasoning that their ambiguous nature makes it difficult for clients to exaggerate or minimize psychological problems.
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What is clinical utility in the context of psychological tests
A7: Clinical utility refers to the extent to which a test and the resulting data improve upon typical clinical decision making and treatment outcomes. It assesses whether the test provides valuable information that can be used to make effective changes in people's daily functioning. Evaluating the clinical utility of psychological tests is crucial for justifying their use in assessment and intervention.
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What are the MMPI and MMPI-2, and how were they developed?
The MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) and its revised version, the MMPI-2, are self-report personality measures widely used in clinical psychology. They were developed using an empirical criterion-keying approach, where a pool of items was generated and analyzed to identify those that discriminate between specific groups, such as patients with mental disorders and comparison groups.
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What issues were addressed in the development of the MMPI-A for use with adolescents?
The development of the MMPI-A (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-Adolescent) addressed issues specific to test use with adolescents. These issues included the test being too long, the reading level being too high, and the norms not being suitable for interpreting scores obtained by adolescents.
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What is the Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (ASEBA)?
The Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (ASEBA) is a family of questionnaires used to assess various aspects of child behavior and psychological functioning.
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What is content approach?
a method of test construction that involves developing items specifically designed to tap the construct being assessed
Many of the new scales on the MMPI did this
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What was wrong with the MMPI?
MMPI was too long for many youth to complete, the reading level was too high, and the norms were not suitable for use in interpreting the scores obtained by adolescents hence why MMPI-2 and MMPI-A exist (created new scales).
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What are the two broad types of problems assessed by the ASEBA scales?
internalzing and externalizing probelms
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What is the SCL-90-R and its purpose? what is the concern?
The SCL-90-R, or Symptom Checklist-90-Revised, is a widely used general measure of distress that assesses various symptoms experienced over the past two weeks.
A concern regarding the SCL-90-R is that it tends to overpathologize, meaning it may indicate higher levels of distress than what is actually present.
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What are some shortcomings of current practice in projective assessment?
One major problem is that non-patient norms used in projective assessment tend to overpathologize normal individuals. Additionally, norms for adults are less pathologizing than the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) norms used for youth.
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Why are researchers and clinicians paying attention to anxiety disorders in the postpartum period?
Researchers and clinicians are paying attention to anxiety disorders in the postpartum period because these disorders can develop or become more severe during this time, causing significant debilitation.
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What factors are considered secondary in an assessment report focusing on a client's intellectual capabilities?
Emotional and interpersonal factors that affect the client's ability to achieve their potential are considered secondary in an assessment report focusing on intellectual capabilities. The primary focus is on presenting a clear picture of the client's intellectual skills.
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In an assessment report about a depressed teacher's ability to return to work, what aspects would be discussed first?
In an assessment report about a depressed teacher's ability to return to work, the report would first discuss Jeff's symptoms, diagnostic information, and functional capabilities. These factors would provide an initial understanding of his condition and readiness to return to work.
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Can psychological assessment determine if someone is suitable to go back to work after injury?
Yes. The clinical psychologist must examine all the assessment information, consider both consistencies and contradictions in the information, generate hypotheses about the client, and formulate conclusions or clinical recommendations about the client based on the overall picture emerging from the assessment. ment procedures may be used to narrow or expand the focus of the assessment.
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What is case formulation in psychological assessment?
Case formulation in psychological assessment refers to the task of describing a patient's life situation, current problems, and developing a set of hypotheses that provide a comprehensive clinical picture. It goes beyond a descriptive account and aims to understand the connections between a patient's problems, determine treatment options, predict future functioning, and provide recommendations for improving the client's functioning.
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What are the benefits of a clinical case formulation?
A clinical case formulation provides a way of understanding the connections between a patient's various problems, guides the selection of appropriate treatment options, predicts future functioning with or without treatment, offers options to consider if difficulties arise during treatment, suggests non-psychological services, and provides alternative treatment options if the initial treatment is unsuccessful.
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What are the steps involved in developing a case formulation?
Step 1. Develop a comprehensive problem list, including the patient’s stated problems and other problems indicated by referral agents or identified by other informants during the assessment.
Step 2. Determine the nature of each problem, including its origin, current precipitants, and consequences.
Step 3. Identify patterns or commonalities among the problems; this may yield an indication of previously unidentified factors that serve to maintain, exacerbate, or lessen the problem.
Step 4. Develop working hypotheses to explain the problems.
Step 5. Evaluate and refine the hypotheses, using all information gathered during the assessment and the patient’s feedback on the hypotheses.
Step 6. If the psychologist moves from conducting an assessment to providing treatment, the hypotheses should be reconsidered, re-evaluated, and revised (as necessary) based on data gathered during treatment.
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What is theoretical orientation?
Theoretical orientation plays a central role in all aspects of the assessment process, from the nature of the initial hypotheses made about the client, to the selection of assessment tools, to the manner in which the assessment data are used to build a full clinical picture of the client.
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WHat are interpersonally oriented psychdoynamic case formulations and what do they focus on?
Interpersonally oriented psychodynamic case formulations are likely to focus on dysfunctional relationship styles (called cyclical maladaptive patterns) as the premise for the formulations, whereas process-experiential formulations are likely to use information about the client’s emotional processing and insight into emotional issues in developing the main premise
186
What are some patient/client factors that can affect the validity of assessments and case formulations?
Patient/client factors that can affect the validity of assessments and case formulations include selective self-presentation during psychological evaluations, conscious highlighting of strengths or weaknesses, and attempts to render assessment results invalid through random responding.
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How can attempts at impression management during evaluations be detected?
There are measures available to detect attempts at impression management during evaluations. These measures can identify inconsistencies and patterns of responding that suggest intentional distortion or invalidity.
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What are some subtle biases that can affect the validity of patient-provided data?
Some subtle biases that can affect the validity of patient-provided data may not be consciously intended and are less likely to be detected by validity scales or measures of malingering. These biases can impact the accuracy of recalled memories and the reporting of events in one's life.
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What is retrospective recall, and why should its accuracy be questioned?
Retrospective recall refers to relying on people's memories to remember past events. Its accuracy should be questioned because studies have shown that recalled memories are often distorted, with individuals underestimating losses and overestimating wins. Variability in the accuracy of recollections has been observed, leading to skepticism about the general accuracy of memory relying on retrospective recall.
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How can biases and heuristics influence clinical judgment and decision-making?
Biases and heuristics can influence clinical judgment and decision-making by affecting the way clinicians perceive and interpret information. They can lead to errors such as fundamental attribution error, inattention to base rates, belief in the law of small numbers, regression to the mean, inferring causation from correlation, hindsight bias, confirmatory bias, bias blind spot, representativeness heuristic, availability heuristic, affect heuristic, and anchoring and adjustment heuristic.
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. What are some potential consequences of clinical errors?
Clinical errors can have various consequences, such as missed diagnoses resulting in ineligibility for services, unwarranted diagnoses leading to unnecessary treatment and stigma, over-prediction or under-prediction of violence, and biased treatment decisions based on ethnicity or other factors.
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. How can the accuracy of clinical judgment be improved?
- Answer: To improve the accuracy of clinical judgment, clinicians should be cautious and aware of decision-making biases. They should rely on structured strategies that integrate empirical evidence rather than informal and unstructured approaches. Training in decision improvement strategies can also lead to more accurate decisions.
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How does clinical experience impact the improvement of clinical judgment?
Clinical experience has a limited impact on improving clinical judgment. Extensive clinical experience does not necessarily result in substantially better decisions compared to clinicians with limited experience.
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What should be done to check for scoring errors when using test data?
A2: It is important to check for scoring errors when using test data. This can be done by reviewing the scoring process and comparing the results with established scoring guidelines or norms to ensure accuracy.
195
Why is it important to use normative data and base rate information in psychological assessment?
Using normative data and base rate information in psychological assessment provides a comparison against a relevant reference group. This helps in interpreting individual test scores and making informed judgments about the individual's performance or functioning.
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What should be used when making diagnostic decisions in psychological assessment?
A5: Established diagnostic criteria should be used when making diagnostic decisions in psychological assessment. These criteria provide standardized guidelines for determining the presence or absence of specific disorders or conditions.
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What are some evidence-based decision aids that can be used in psychological assessment?
A6: Evidence-based decision aids, such as decision trees or clinical guidelines, can be used in psychological assessment. These aids provide structured frameworks and guidelines based on research evidence to support decision-making processes.
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How should unstructured tasks, like conducting interviews and reviewing assessment data, be approached in psychological assessment?
A7: In unstructured tasks, it is important to be as systematic, structured, and quantifiable as possible in order to obtain, consider, and use all relevant information. This approach ensures thoroughness and reduces the chance of overlooking important details.
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What is the therapeutic model of assessment?
therapeutic model of assessment: an approach to psychological assessment in which clients are actively encouraged to participate in discussions about the reasons for the assessment, the results of the testing, and how the assessment data should be integrated and interpreted
