chapter one

Question 1

active mind.

Answer 1

a mind that transforms, interprets, understands, or values physical experience. The rationalists assume an active mind

Question 2

anomalies

Answer 2

persistent observations that cannot be explained by an existing paradigm. anomalies eventually cause one paradigm to displace another

Question 3

Biological determinism

Answer 3

The type of determinism that stresses the biochemical, genetic, physiological, or anatomical causes of behavior.

Question 4

causal laws

Answer 4

Laws describing causal relationships. Such laws specify the conditions that are necessary and sufficient to produce a certain event. Knowledge of causal laws allows both the prediction and control of events.

Question 5

Confirmable propositions

Answer 5

Within science, propositions capable of validation through empirical tests

Question 6

Correlational laws

Answer 6

Laws that specify the systematic relationships among classes of empirical events. Unlike causal laws, the events described by correlational laws do not need to be causally related. One can note, for example, that as average daily temperature rises, so does that crime rate without knowing (or even caring) if the two events are causally related.

Question 7

Correspondence theory of truth

Answer 7

the belief that scientific laws and theories are correct insofar as they accurately mirror events in the physical world

Question 8

Determinism

Answer 8

the belief that everything that occurs does so because of known or knowable causes and that if these causes were known in advance, an event could be predicted with complete accuracy. also, if the causes of an event were known, the event could be prevented by preventing its causes. Thus, the knowledge of an event’s causes allows the prediction and control of the event.

Question 9

Double aspectism

Answer 9

the belief that bodily and mental events are inseparable because they are two aspects of every experience

Question 10

Dualist

Answer 10

anyone who believes that there are two aspects to humans, one physical and one mental

Question 11

Eclectic approach

Answer 11

Taking the best from a variety of viewpoints.

Question 12

Emergentism

Answer 12

The contention that mental processes emerge from brain processes. The interactionist form or emergentism claims that once mental states emerge, they can influence subsequent brain activity and thus behavior. The epiphenomenalist form claims that emergent mental states are behaviorally irrelevant.

Question 13

Empirical observation

Answer 13

the direct observation of that which is being studied in order to understand it

Question 14

Empiricism

Answer 14

The belief that the basis of all knowledge is experience.

Question 15

Environmental determinism

Answer 15

The type of determinism that stresses causes of behavior that are external to the organism

Question 16

Epiphenomenalism

Answer 16

The form of emergentism that states that mental events emerge from brain activity but that mental events are subsequently behaviorally irrelevant.

Question 17

Feyerabend, Paul (1924-1994)

Answer 17

Argued that science cannot be described by any standard set of rules, principles, or standards. In fact, he said, history shows that scientific progress occurs when individual scientists violate whatever rules, principles, or standards existed at the time.

Question 18

Great-person approach

Answer 18

The approach to history that concentrates of the most prominent contributors to the topic or field under consideration

Question 19

Historical development approach

Answer 19

The approach to history that concentrates on an element of a field or discipline and describes how the understanding or approach to studying that element has changed over time

Question 20

Historicism

Answer 20

the study of the past for its own sake, without attempting to interpret and evaluate it in terms of current knowledge and standards, as is the case with presentism

Question 21

Historiography

Answer 21

The study of the proper way to write history

Question 22

Idealists

Answer 22

Those who believe that ultimate reality consists of ideas or perceptions and is therefore not physical.

Question 23

Indeterminism

Answer 23

the contention that even though determinism is true, attempting to measure the causes of something influences those causes, making it impossible to know them with certainty. Also known as Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

Question 24

Interactionisn

Answer 24

A proposed answer to the mind-body problem maintaining that bodily experiences influence the mind and that the mind influences the body

Question 25

Kuhn, Thomas (1922-1996)

Answer 25

Believed that the activities of members of a scientific community are governed by a shared set of beliefs called a paradigm. This paradigmatic, or normal, science continues until an existing paradigm is displaced by another paradigm

Question 26

Materialists

Answer 26

Those who believe that everything in the universe is material (physical), including those things that others refer to as mental.

Question 27

Mechanism

Answer 27

The belief that the behavior of organisms, including humans, can be explained entirely in terms of mechanical laws.

Question 28

Monists

Answer 28

Those who believe that there is only one reality. Materalists are monists because they believe that only matter exists. Idealists are also monists because they believe that everything, including the material world, is the result of human consciousness and is therefore mental.

Question 29

Naive realism

Answer 29

The belief that what one experiences mentally is the same as what is present physically

Question 30

Nativist

Answer 30

Anyone who believes that important human attributes such as intelligence are largely inherited.

Question 31

Nondeterminism

Answer 31

the belief that human thought or behavior is freely chosen by the individual and is therefore not caused by antecedent physical or mental events

Question 32

Normal science

Answer 32

According to Kuhn, the research activities performed by scientists as they explore the implications of a paradigm.

Question 33

Occasionalism

Answer 33

the belief that the relationship between the mind and body is mediated by God.

Question 34

Paradigm

Answer 34

A viewpoint shared by many scientists while exploring the subject matter of their science. A paradigm determines what constitutes legitimate problems and the methodology used in solving those problems.

Question 35

Paradigmatic stage

Answer 35

According to Kuhn, the stage in the development of a science during which scientific activity is guided by a paradigm. That is, it is during this stage that normal science occurs.

Question 36

Passive mind

Answer 36

a mind that simply reflects cognitively one's experiences with the physical world. The empiricists assume a passive mind.

Question 37

Physical determinism

Answer 37

The type of determinism that stresses material causes of behavior

Question 38

Popper, Karl (1902-1994)

Answer 38

Saw scientific method of having three components: problems, proposed solutions to the problems (theories), and criticisms of the proposed solutions. Because all scientific theories will eventually be found to be false, the highest status any scientific theory can attain is not yet disconfirmed

Question 39

Postdiction

Answer 39

An attempt to account for something after is has occurred. Postdiction is contrasted with prediction, which attempts to specify the conditions under which an even has not yet occurred will occur.

Question 40

Preestablished harmony

Answer 40

The belief that bodily events and mental events are separate but correlated because both were designed to run identical courses.

Question 41

Preparadigmatic stage

Answer 41

According to kuhn, the first stage in the development of a science. This stage is characterized by warring factions vying to define that subject matter and methodology of a discipline.

Question 42

Presentism

Answer 42

Interpreting and evaluating historical events in terms of contemporary knowledge and standards.

Question 43

Principle of falsifiability

Answer 43

Popper's contention that for a theory to be considered scientific it must specify the observations that, if made, would refute the theory. To be considered scientific, a theory must make risky predictions

Question 44

Psychical determinism

Answer 44

The type of determinism that stresses mental causes of behavior.

Question 45

Psychophysical parallelism

Answer 45

The contention that experiencing something in the physical world causes bodily and mental activity simultaneously and that the two types of activities are independent of each other.

Question 46

Public observation

Answer 46

The stipulation that scientific laws must be available for any interested person to observe. Science is interested in general, empirical relationships that are publicly verifiable

Question 47

Puzzle solving

Answer 47

According to Kuhn, normal science is like puzzle solving in that the problems worked on are specified by a paradigm, the problems have guaranteed solutions, and certain rules must be followed in arriving at those solutions

Question 48

Rationalism

Answer 48

The philosophical belief that knowledge can be attained only be engaging in some type of systematic mental activity.

Question 49

Reification

Answer 49

The belief that abstractions for which we have names have an existence independent of their names

Question 50

Relativism

Answer 50

The belief that because all experience must be filtered though individual and group perspectives, the search for universal truths that exist independently of human experience must be in vain. For the relativist, there is no one truth, only truths.

Question 51

Revolutionary stage

Answer 51

According to Kuhn, the stage of scientific development during which an existing paradigm is displaced by a new one. Once the displacement is complete, the new paradigm generates normal science and continues doing so until it too is eventually displaced by a new paradigm

Question 52

Risky predictions

Answer 52

According to Popper, predictions derived from a scientific theory that run a real chance of showing the theory to be false. For example, if a meteorological theory predicts that it will rain at a specific place at a specific time, then it must do so or the theory will be shown to be incorrect.

Question 53

Science

Answer 53

Traditionally, the systematic attempt to rationally categorize or explain empirical observations. Popper described science as a way of rigorously testing proposed solutions to problems, and Kuhn emphasized the importance of paradigms that guide the research activities of scientists. Feyerabend believed it is impossible to give a generalized conception of science or scientific method.

Question 54

Scientific law

Answer 54

a consistently observed relationship between classes of empirical events

Question 55

Scientific theory

Answer 55

Traditionally, a proposed explanation of a number of empirical observations; according to Popper, a proposed solution to a problem

Question 56

Sociocultural determinism

Answer 56

The type of environmental determinism that stresses cultural or societal rules, customs, regulations, or expectations as the causes of behavior.

Question 57

Universalism

Answer 57

the belief that there are universal truths about ourselves and about the physical world in general that can be discovered by anyone using the proper methods of inquiry

Question 58

Vitalism

Answer 58

The belief that life cannot be explained in terms of inanimate processes. For the vitalist, life requires a force that is more than the material objects or inanimate processes in which is manifests itself. For there to be life, there must also be a vital force present.

Question 59

Zeitgeist

Answer 59

The spirit of the times