Chapter 9: Language Flashcards
what is language
a system that relates sounds (or gestures) to meaning
4 components to language
1) Has arbitrary units, therefore symbolic
2) Structured and meaningful
3) Shows displacement- can communicate events distant in time/space (not just here/now)
4) Characterized by generativity—can produce infinite number of utterance from languages vocabulary provided follows the structure
5 elements involved in spoken languages
1) phonology
2) morphology
3) semantics
4) syntax
5) pragmatics
what is phonology
sounds of a language (~200 different sounds use in all known spoken languages)
- English structured from about 45
what are semantics
study of words and their meanings
what is syntax
rules that specify how words are combined in sentences
what are pragmatics
communicative functions of language and the rules that lead to effective communication
infants younger than 6 months learning language
do not need to experience speech sounds in their environment to be able to discriminate them
- They aren’t accustomed to a certain language yet
what are phonemes?
are sounds that are the building blocks of language, unique sounds that can be joined to create words (consonant + vowel sounds), can distinguish sounds as early as 1-month old
young babies hearing phonemes
can hear phonemes that are not in their language
what is Infant-directed speech
may help children learn language—adults speak slowly and with exaggerated changes in pitch and loudness (aka motherese)
- Children pay attention to stressed syllables
what is a cochlear implant
device picks up speech sounds and converts them to electrical impulses that stimulate nerve cells in the ear
benefits of cochlear implants
- Show to promote language acquisition in deaf children
- Children deaf from birth receive cochlear implants, spoken language skills end up better than those without implants
- After receiving implants, deaf children acquire spoken language at same rate as children with normal hearing
first steps to speech at 2 months
cooing (vowel-like sounds)
first steps to speech at 6 months
babbling (speech-like sound that has no meaning), at this age pay more attention to content words than to function words
- precursor to real speech
- similar to adults, babies while babbling open mouth wider on right side reflecting left hemisphere control of language and muscle movements of right side
first steps to speech 8-11 months
babbling includes intonation (rising/falling pitch)
- babies brought up by English-speaking parents have both declarative and question patterns of intonation in babbling
- appearance of intonation in babbling indicates strong link between perception and production of speech
what do babies first words appear?
around first birthday
infants babbling is influenced by…
speech they hear
one of biggest challenges for infants is identifying….
identifying recurring patterns of sounds—words
Understanding words as symbols
- infants understand that words are symbols (something that stands for something else)
- gestures are symbols that children start to use around the time they begin to talk (first bday)
what is naming explosion?
learn new words much more rapidly than before (~18 months)
learn 10 or more words each week
what is fast mapping?
learning word meanings so rapidly that they child can’t be considering all possible meanings for new word
4 ways rapid word learning occurs
1) joint attention
2) constraints on word names
3) sentence cues
4) cognitive growth
Joint attention
rapid word learning
toddlers touch or look at object often parents/adults will label it for them, parents will simplify by using one word
- Parents label objects, children rely on adults behaviour to interpret words they hear
- When adults label unfamiliar object, young children more likely to assume that the label is the objects name when adults show signs that they are referring to the object by looking or pointing while labelling
what are constraints on word names
rapid word learning
- if an unfamiliar word is heard in the presence of objects that already have names and objects that do not, the word refers to one of the objects that does not have a name. Discovered simple rules help children match words with correct referent
- name refers to whole object
- object has name already and another name presented, new name= subcategory
- word applied consistently to only one of similar category members is proper noun (e.g. one dinosaur called dino= name)
sentence cues
rapid word learning
words they already know in a sentence helps learn new words and understand the meaning of the sentence/word
cognitive growth
rapid word learning
as children’s thinking becomes more sophisticated, they start to have goals and intentions, language becomes a means to express goals and achieve them
Shape-Bias Theory of Word Learning
General rule: objects with same shape have the same name, children are then able to realize that paying attention to shape is an easy way to learn names
- Shape plays a central role in learning words, infants/young children spontaneously pay attention to object’s shape, use this bias to learn words
2 types of naming errors
under-extensions
overextensions
what are under-extensions
NAMING ERROR
- defining a word too narrowly
E.g: using word “car” to refer only to the family car, and “ball” to refer only to one favourite toy ball
- learn word dog and think it only applies to their dog, and meet new dog and don’t know what it is
what are overextensions?
NAMING ERROR
- defining word too broadly
- more common in word production
E.g. use “Car” to also refer to buses/trucks, or “doggie” to refer to all 4-legged animals
Wide range in vocabulary development largely accounted for by: (2)
1) childs language environment
2) phonological memory
what is phonological memory?
the ability to remember speech sounds briefly
2 types of learning styles
1) referential style
2) expressive style
what is referential style
vocabularies consist mainly of words that name objects, persons or actions (referring to something)
in referential style, children use language primarily as…..
intellectual tool
what is expressive style
vocabularies include many social phrases that are used as a single word (e.g. “go-away”, “I-want-it”)
in expressive style, children use language primarily as…..
social tool
how to encourage word learning
- Speak WITH children frequently (not at them)
- Name objects that are the focus of child’s attention, use speech that uses different words and is grammatically sophisticated, and respond promptly to child
- Read books and ask children open-ended questions
does watching TV benefit children’s word learning?
- No evidence for increased word learning for shows designed for infants
- Sesame Street helps children learn words (because its interactive)
- Benefits of educational TV are greatest when children watch with adults
benefits of learning 2 languages
- Bilingual children learn language as rapidly as monolinguals
- Bilingual children are often more skilled at switching back and forth between tasks and inhibit inappropriate responses
best method of teaching immigrant children a second language
combination of the child’s native language and the local language
what are allophones?
people living in Canada who speak a language other than one of the 2 official languages
children using other symbols
- Children learn other symbol systems as they grow, such as pictures and scale models
- other symbolic forms learned later include maps, graphs, and muscle notation
by ____ toddlers understand that photos are representations of objects
by 18 months
by ____, children understand relation between scale models and objects they represent
3 years old
speech is often ____ in 2 year olds
telegraphic
what is telegraphic speech?
- consists of only words directly relevant to meaning
e.g. “want mild”
“play blocks”
8 rules used to express meaning during 2-word stage
1) agent + action
- “daddy eat”
2) possessor + possession
- “my truck”
3) action + object
- “gimme cookie”
4) agent + object
- “boy car” (boy pushing car)
5) action + location
- “put chair” (put object on chair)
6) entity + location
- “truck chair” (truck is n chair)
7) attribute + entity
- “big car
8) demonstrative + entity
- “that cup”
development of complex sentences
- gradually add grammatical morphemes (words or endings of words that make a sentence grammatical)
- mastering of grammar by rule-based learning, so errors of over-regularization occur (“two mans, two foots”) – applying to words that are exceptions to the rule (I goed, she runned)
development of complex sentences ages 3-6
learn negations (this isnt a butterfly)
- comprehend passive voice
ball was kicked by the girl
4 approaches to explaining children’s acquisition of grammar
1) behaviourist
- imitating speech they hear
2) linguistic
- inborn mechanisms that allow children to infer
3) cognitive
- using powerful cognitive mechanisms that allow children to find recurring patterns in speech they hear
4) Social interaction
- in context of social interactions with adults, in which both parties want improved communication
what is the linguistic approach?
- language input is important but learning is more than just imitation—children produce novel sentences and children’s speech has its own grammar
- there are specific regions in the brain for different language functions
Broca’s area of brain
linguistic approach
area necessary for combining words into meaningful sentences
- region of left frontal cortex
Semantic Bootstrapping theory
linguistic approach
children are born knowing that nouns usually refer to people or objects and that verbs are actions, use this knowledge to infer grammatical rules
what is the critical period for language learning?
up to 12 years of age
taking turns
what age??
- Even before children speak, parents model turn-taking (Not true in some non-Western cultures)
- By 2 years, spontaneous turn-taking occurs
- By 3 years, children will try to elicit a response if listener fails to respond promptly
toddlers and children’s first conversations about…
themselves
later, as the child is older conversations begin to include
more abstract notions (e.g. hypothetical objects, and past/future events)
preschoolers adjust speech
speech based on the age and needs of the listener and context
- Give more elaborate messages to listeners who lack critical information than to listeners who have the information
- Preschoolers understand that when listeners misunderstand, speaker needs to do something
preschoolers listening
- Preschoolers often don’t detect ambiguities in messages or they assume they understood the speaker’s intent
- Preschoolers are more likely to believe confusing statements or statements that contradict their beliefs when told by a parent instead of a classmate
- Understanding of non-literal meaning (sarcasm and metaphor) develops slowly
Using Gestures to Communicate
Gesture use varies between cultures
- Canadians shake hands when meeting
- Japanese bow when meeting
We can use gestures to communicate emotions
- E.g. shaking fist when we’re mad
Gestures= communication, not language
why is sign language considered a true language
meets 4 criteria
1) Arbitrary units: signs do not have to be iconic (not exactly representative)
- Therefore, symbolic
- ASL high degree iconicity- sign resembling thing it means
- Many signs are arbitrary representations
2) Structures and meaningful: grammatical rules must be followed
3) Displacement: can be used to discuss events displaced in time/place
4) Generativity: can be used to create and infinite number of new utterances
Evidence for Language Development of sign language
- Construct of language has cognitive basis and also influenced by environment
- Signed languages develop the same way spoken languages do
(Babbling, naming explosion, telegraphic speech) - There is a critical period for acquiring signed languages
(Early experience is crucial) - Signed languages seem to be acquired earlier than spoken languages
- Many hearing families use “baby sign”
CODA language development
Children of Deaf Adults
- children are not deaf, often grow up in environment where sign language is present from birth, and infants learning sign language do through same stages of language development as those of speech (babble with sign, produce one gesture, then 2 gesture combo)
Importance of Phonological Awareness in language development
- Early language problems are highly predictive of subsequent communication and learning disorders and should not be ignored
- There is a range of normal language development (wide range of what normal is)
Importance of Phonological Awareness (phonology)
- Deficits in phonology are a chief reason that individuals develop communication and learning disorders
- About 80% of children can use phonemes properly by age of 7
warning signs of communication disorders appear when?
age 2 and beyond
warning signs of communication disorders
- Child uses gestures rather than speech
- Difficulty with verbal expression
- Failure to develop language
- Difficulty segmenting words and syllables into proper phonemes
- Difficulty naming common objects and letters
- Difficulty producing speech sounds
- Begin speaking late and speech development is slow
- Limited vocabulary, short sentences, and simple grammatical structure
- Difficulty recalling words
- Problems articulating certain sounds
(E.g. says wabbit, instead of rabbit) - Fluency and timing of speech is irregular
- Repetition of sounds or prolonging sounds in speech
- Difficulty understanding certain sounds, words, or sentences
Individuals with Communication Disorders have difficulty in: (4)
1) Producing speech sounds
- Speech Sound Disorder
2) Speech fluency
- Stuttering/Childhood-onset Fluency Disorder
3) Language to communicate
- Language Disorder
4) Using communication socially
- Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder
language disorder (LD) characterized by
deficits in expression despite normal comprehension of speech
- When try and express themselves have difficulty, receptive language comprehension is typical
language disorder occurs when…
child’s language matures at least 12 months behind his/her chronological age
Children with LD often have 3 things:
1) Delayed/slowed speech development
2) Limited vocabulary
3) Speech marked by short sentences and simple grammatical structure
what is a speech sound disorder?
difficulty with articulation or sound production
Diagnostic Criteria (DSM 5) of language disorder
4 criteria
1) Persistent difficulties in acquisition and use of language across modalities (spoken, written, sign, other) due to deficits in comprehension or production
- Reduced vocabulary (knowledge/use)
- Limited sentence structure (ability to put words and word endings together to form sentences based on rules)
- Impairments in discourse (ability to use vocabulary and connect sentences to explain, describe, converse)
2) Substantially and quantifiably below expected age, resulting in functional limitations in effective:
- Communication
- Social participation
- Academic achievement
- Occupational performance
3) Onset in early developmental period (therefore a developmental disorder)
4) Not due to hearing or sensory impairment, motor dysfunction, medical or neurological condition; not better explained by intellectual disability or global developmental delay
Prevalence and Course of Language Disorder
- LD affects 7% of younger school-age children
- Communication disorders are identified twice as often in boys than girls
- Most children acquire normal language by adolescence
- 50% fully outgrow the problems
- LD is associated with higher-than-normal rates of negative behaviours
4 main causes of LD
1) genetics
- twin studies suggest language processes are heritable
2) brain
- problems in connections between brain areas and less brain activity in left temporal region
3) Recurrent middle ear infections (otitis media) in first year of life may lead to speech and language delays
4) Home environment: unlikely communication disorders are caused by parents
- Except in cases of extreme neglect and abuse
treatment of LD
LD and other similar communication disorders usually self-correct by age 6 and may not require intervention
3 strategies for parents to stimulate language development
- Enroll child in specialized preschool
- Using combination of computer and teacher-assisted instruction to teach early academic skill
- Build on the child’s existing strengths
what is childhood-onset fluency disorder
The repeated and prolonged pronunciation of certain syllables that interferes with communication
Prevalence and course of childhood-onset fluency disorder
- Gradual onset between ages 2-7, peaks at age 5
- About 3% of children are affected
- Affects males about 3X more often than females
- 80% of those who stutter before age 5 stop after a year in school
causes of childhood-onset fluency disorder
- genetic factors account for 70% of variance in causes
- environmental factors account for remaining influences
3 possible treatments of childhood-onset fluency disorder
- parental changes- speak to the child slowly in short sentences
- contingency management procedures
- habit reversal procedures—for repetitive behaviours (engage in incompatible behaviour, e.g. to stop from stuttering)
what is Social (Pragmatic) communication disorder
new addition to DSM5
- persistent difficulties in pragmatics (social use of language and communication)
DSM5: 4 criteria for social communication disorder
1) persistent difficulties in social use of verbal/nonverbal communication (4 parts)
2) the deficits result in functional limitations in effective communication, social participation, social relationships, academic achievement, or occupational performance, individually or in combination
3) the onset of the symptoms is early in the developmental period (but deficits may not become fully manifest until social communication demands exceed limited capacities)
4) the symptoms are not attributable to another medical or neurological condition or to low abilities in the domains of word structure/grammar, and are not better explained by autism spectrum disorder, intellectual disability, global developmental delay or another mental disorder
DSM5: persistent difficulties in social use of verbal/nonverbal communication manifested by: (4 things)
a) deficits in using communication for social purposes, in manner appropriate for social context (e.g. greeting/sharing information)
b) impairment of the ability to change communication to match context or the needs of the listener
c) difficulties following rules for language and storytelling, and knowing how to use verbal and nonverbal signals to regulate interaction
d) difficulties understanding what is not explicitly stated and nonliteral or ambiguous meanings of language
