Chapter 9 Flashcards
infant-directed (ID) speech.
- United States, adults speak directly to infants from birth using a unique speech register
- high overall pitch, exaggerated pitch contours, and slower tempos
- maintains infants’ attention, and infants seem to prefer it to AD speech
communicative accommodation
The speech adults direct to children thus ranges
- from highly child-centered to highly situation-centered.
- the adult regularly takes the perspective of the child to foster the child’s understanding and production of speech in communicative exchanges.
Dialects
regional or social varieties of language that differ from one another in terms of their pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar.
- develop during a prolonged period in which people are separated by geographic barriers, such as mountains and rivers, or by social barriers, such as social-class differences.
- some dialects are held in higher esteem than others.
- infer intelligence, wealth, success, ambition, and educational attainment
accents
varieties of language that differ solely in pronunciation.
Standard American English (SAE; also called General American English, GAE)
has the highest status in the United States, as does Received Pronunciation (RP) in England.
regional dialects
when people from different parts of the British Isles began to settle in different areas along the East Coast and then moved inland
Language contact
the process whereby speakers of a language other than English shape the pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary of English in the surounding area.
Population movement
the migration of persons from one dialect region to another, can affect the maintenance of a dialect in one of two ways
Expanding transportation and communication networks
can also affect a regional dialect in the same two ways: It may vanish or it may become more pronounced.
Shifting cultural centers
also influence dialect change in the United States. Sub-urban areas are now becoming influential in the development of dialects, just as large urban areas once were.
Southern Dialects.
among the more recognizable varieties of American English.
- unique grammatical constructions as well. (Yall)
Northern Dialects.
include New England dialect, Boston dialect, Maine dialect, Pittsburgh dialect, New York City dialect, Philadelphia dialect, and Canadian English.
Midwestern Dialects.
areas such as Chicago, Illinois, Ohio, St. Louis, Missouri, and Michigan speak midwestern dialects.
- people erroneously claim to be accent free or most typical of a “standard” American dialect, actually have phonological, grammatical, and lexi-cal features that differentiate them from other regional dialects.
Western Dialects.
- the western dialect area remains largely undefined
- include Utah dialect; Portland, Oregon dialect; and Arizona English.
African American Vernacular English (AAVE)
pidgins: which were combinations of their African languages and the European languages they were exposed to, so they could communicate with their owners and with other enslaved individuals.
- reduce consonant clusters
- distinction between habitual and temporary forms
Chicano English (ChE)
dialect people of Mexican ethnic origin
- Los Angeles area and areas close to the U.S.–Mexican border, ChE has been documented in non-Spanish-speaking midwestern communities
- using intonation patterns characteristic of Spanish and spanish words even if they dont know spanish
Jewish English dialect
- type of sociocultural dialect
- characteristics of both the Yiddish and Hebrew languages.
non-mainstream American English (NMAE)
children using NMAE dialects may experience greater challenges in learning to read as com-pared to children who speak mainstream American English
pidgin
a simplified type of language that develops when speakers who do not share a common language come into prolonged contact
creoles
when speakers pass pidgins them down through generations as a first language.
___ % ages 5 years and older reported speaking a language other than English at home
- 21% of people
- 58% spoke english very well, 19% well
dual language learners
many people living in the United States acquire two or more languages during their lifetime.
Bilingualism
the process whereby children essentially acquire two first languages.
multilingualism
Many young children around the world acquire more than two first languages.
simultaneous bilingualism
child acquires two or more languages from birth, or simultaneously
- A child is part of a majority ethnolinguistic community, or he or she is part of a minority ethnolinguistic community
majority ethnolinguistic community
is a group that speaks a language the majority of people in an area (e.g., country, state, province) value and assign high social status.
minority ethnolinguistic community
a group that speaks a language few people in the community speak or value.
- may have lower social status, and may receive little or no institutional support
- may experience setbacks in acquiring or maintaining the minority language of the community.
- may have more success at maintaining the minority language.
Sequential bilingualism
the child learns the two first languages in succession, usually within the first 3 years of life, before developing proficiency with only one of the languages.
unitary language system hypothesis
children are not bilingual until they successfully differentiate between the two languages.
dual language system hypothesis
does not pre-suppose that children move through stages whereby they eventually differentiate between two languages
code switching, or code mixing.
speakers who have more than one language alternate between the languages.
- to fill in lexical or grammatical gaps.
- according to the social norms of their community
intrautterance mixing
When the alternation occurs within a single utterance
intrasentential mixing
within one sentence,
interutterance mixing
When the alternation occurs between utterances
- Children tend to use interutterance mixing more often than intrautterance mixing,
intersentential mixing
between sentences
code switching comes in at least two forms
- children tend to code switch more often while using their less proficient language.
- children tend to code switch more often when they do not know a translation equivalent for a word,
Second language acquisition (SLA), or L2 acquisition:
the process by which chil-dren who have already established a solid foundation in their first language (L1) learn an additional language.
- takes place in the context of a school, either as the majority language for a particular community or as a foreign language.
Transfer
the influence of one’s L1 on his or her L2 development.
interlanguage
that represents the learner’s evolving second language knowledge, patterns, and rules.
Language stabilization
occurs once the interlanguage stops evolving and L2 learners reach a plateau in their language development.
Overgeneralization
occurs in second language acquisition and refers to situations when a learner incorrectly overextends or applies rules in the L2, such as using the past tense ending -ed with irregular verbs
formulaic language
describes a learner’s use of certain language routines or phrases that exist as a unit rather than as individual pieces the learner compiles for meaning.
Avoidance
de-scribes when a learner avoids using sounds, words, or grammatical constructions he or she finds to be difficult or does not know
English language learner (ELL) or English learner (EL)
often used to describe children identified as having limited English proficiency
children who have limited, or no English proficiency arrive in classrooms where English is the language of instruction, they usually progress through four early stages in their L2 development
home language stage, nonverbal period,telegraphic and formulaic use, and language productivity
home language stage
children use their home language (L1) in the classroom with other children and adults.
nonverbal period
children produce little to no language as they begin to acquire their L2 receptively
telegraphic and formulaic use
children begin to imitate other people, use single words to label items, and use simple phrases that they memorize.
language productivity
children are not yet proficient speakers of their L2; however, their communicative repertoire continues to expand.
ex: general all-purpose verbs
general all-purpose verbs
GAP verbs, make, do, and go. For example, preschoolers learning ESL may say “I make picture,” “I do that too,” or “I go home.”
English as a foreign language (EFL)
have a number of reasons for doing so, including establishing oral proficiency in order to engage in business transactions with English-speaking counterparts and establishing grammatical proficiency to increase their chances of being accepted into an English-speaking institution of higher learning.
Contrastive Analysis Principles:
L1 interference :The contrastive analysis hypothesis posits that a learner will acquire language structures easily when the structures are similar in the two languages and will experience difficulty acquiring language structures when they differ in the two languages.
Contrastive Analysis Implications for L2 Instruction:
The learner would then focus on practicing the aspects of the L2 that differ so as to avoid reinforcing behaviors or habits from the L1. The learner would also work to replace L1 habits with L2 habits.
Universal grammar Principles:
Proponents of UG argue that as with L1 acquisition, L2 learners acquire elements of language that other people cannot teach and that input alone cannot provide.
- critical period hypothesis
Universal grammar
- UG does not have implications for communication context, student motivation, or external input that is gained through interactions with other people.
- learners make as they acquire their second language and for the natural order by which they acquire specific language structures.
critical period hypothesis
which states that the critical period for language acquisition spans the period between birth and puberty
monitor model consists of five underlying hypotheses:
(a) the acquisition-learning hypothesis, (b) the monitor hypothesis, (c) the natural order hypothesis, (d) the input hypothesis, and (e) the affective filter hypothesis:
acquisition-learning hypothesis:
states that two independent systems are crucial to L2 learning performance: the acquired system and the learned system.
The acquired system
is an unconscious system by which L2 learn-ers acquire language through natural communicative interactions with other people, similar to the way young children acquire their L1.
the learned system
is the result of a conscious process through which L2 learners gain knowledge of the rules of their L2.
monitor hypothesis
explains the relation of the learned system to the acquired system.
natural order hypothesis
suggests L2 learners acquire grammatical structures in a natural and predictable sequence.
input hypothesis
states that L2 learners move forward in their competence by receiving input that is just slightly ahead of their current state of grammatical knowledge, or comprehensible input
affective filter hypothesis
states that “filters” exist that may prevent L2 learners from processing input and thus prevent acquisition.
- These affective filters include such factors as low motivation, negative attitude, poor self-confidence, and anxiety.
natural approach
teachers must help ensure that students’ affective filters are “down” and not “up.” When students’ affective filters are down, they should have more success acquiring comprehensible input from their teacher because they are not thinking about the possibility of failure.
Cognitive Theory with Attention-processing Model
rests on five principles that relate to the learner’s mental and intellectual functioning
- automaticity, meaningful learning, anticipation of reward,
automaticity
helps account for how L2 learners can acquire language without truly “thinking” about it.
meaningful learning
L2 learners assimilate new information into their existing memory structures.
anticipation of reward
one factor that drives L2 learners to act or “behave” is anticipation of a reward—either tangible or intangible, and either immediate or long term
intrinsic motivation
The motivation stems from within the L2 learner. In other words, the process of learning an L2 can be rewarding in and of itself, so the learner does not need external rewards.
strategic investment
the L2 learner personally invests time, effort, and attention to L2 learning by using the strategies for understanding and producing language that he or she brings to the learning process.
