Chapter 8 Flashcards
Beginning at around age 8–10 years, children shift to gaining more and more of their language input from
text
- children develop language in an increasingly individualized manner
- Reading not only helps build children’s lexical knowledge, but also has a role in developing the phonological, semantic, and pragmatic aspects of oral language.
Being able to read requires the child’s successful understanding of
grapheme-to-phoneme (letter-to-sound) correspondence
print awareness
child’s knowledge of print forms and functions
phonological awareness
is the child’s sensitivity to the sound structure of language.)
prereading stage
- birth to the beginning of formal education
- witness to some of the children’s most critical developments, including oral language, print awareness, and phonological awareness
Initial reading, or decoding, stage:
- Stage 1 : kindergarten through first grade, about 5–7 years old.
- children begin to decode (or sound out) words by associating letters with corresponding sounds in spoken words.
- three phases within: 1. when children read, they make word substitution errors in which the substituted word is semantically and syntactically probable.2. they make word substitution errors in which the substituted word has a graphic resemblance to the original printed word.3. children make word substitution errors in which the substituted word has a graphic resemblance to the original printed word but is also semantically acceptable.
Confirmation, fluency, and ungluing from print:
Stage 2: second to third grade, about 7–8 yrs.
- children read familiar texts, they become particularly proficient with high-frequency words, and use the redundancies of language to gain fluency and speed in reading.
- they gradually begin to transition from learning to read to reading to learn.
Fluency
reading that is efficient, well paced, and free of errors. It improves as children practice reading with texts that are familiar to them and that closely match their reading abilities.
Ungluing from print
the idea that as children become more confident and fluent in their reading abilities, their reading becomes more automatic.
- focus less on the print itself and begin to focus more on gaining meaning from the text—they become unglued
Reading to learn the new—a first step:
Stage 3: grade 4 to grades 8 or 9, about age 9–14 years.
- children read to gain new information and are solidly reading to learn by the end of this stage. in 2 phases
1. Stage 3A (grades 4–6, or ages 9–11 years), children develop the ability to read beyond egocentric purposes so that they can read about and learn conventional information about the world.children can read works of typical adult length, but not at the adult level of reading difficulty
2. In Stage 3B (grades 7–8 or 9 and ages 12–14 years), children can read on a general adult level.
Multiple viewpoints—high school:
Stage 4: High school; ages 14-18 yrs
- students learn to navigate increas-ingly difficult concepts and the texts that describe them. children can consider multiple viewpoints on an issue.
Construction and reconstruction a world view:
Stage 5: College about 18 yrs and on
- readers read selectively to suit their purposes. Reading selectively involves knowing which portions of a text to read—whether it be the beginning, middle, or end of the text or some combination; uses analysis, synthesis, and prediction, to construct meaning from text.
metalinguistic competence
the ability to think about and analyze language as an object of attention
phonemic awareness
- indicate the child must attend to the phonemes, or individual speech sounds in syllables and words.
- awareness of the smallest units of sound (phonemes) and include blending sounds, segmenting sounds from words, and manipulating sounds
awareness of the distinct sounds in syllables and words
- develops by kindergarden/ 1st grade (5-6 yrs) *Blending tasks
- The ability to blend sounds to make words supports a child’s reading development, particularly his or her decoding skills.
ability to segment sounds from words
- develops by kindergarden/ 1st grade (5-6 yrs) *segmentation tasks
- The ability to segment words into their onset-rime segments (/b/ /ot/ for boat; /k/ /ot/ for coat) and their individual phonemes (/b/ /o/ /t/; /k/ /o/ /t/) is related to children’s awareness of spelling sequences in words and their reading development
Sound manipulation
- most complex phonological awareness ability
- develops by 2nd grade (7yrs)
- A sound manipulation task might resemble the following: “Say rate without the /r/.” “What word do you have if you switch the /p/ and /t/ sounds in pat?” Such tasks require children to intensively analyze and manipulate the sound structures of individual words.
figurative language
- metalinguistic ability
- to evoke mental images in the minds of their listeners, or to provide emphasis or highlight something in an interesting way
metaphors, similes, hyperboles, idioms, irony, and proverbs
Metaphors
conveys similarity between two ideas or objects by stat-ing that those two ideas or objects are the same
- The topic (target) and the vehicle (base) share features, and form the basis of comparison called the ground
- two types: predictive and proportional
- kids understand preschool
basic-level metaphors
the girl in the pool is a fish
subordinate-level metaphors
the girl in the pool is a dolphin
Predictive Metaphor
- Contains one topic and one vehicle
ex: All the world’s a stage.
World is the topic and stage is the vehicle.
Proportional
Contains two topics and two vehicles and expresses an analogical relationship
ex: The artist was an apple tree with no fruit
- The analogy is “apple tree is to fruit as artist is to artwork.” The topics are artist and artwork (implied from the analogy) and the vehicles are apple tree and fruit.
Similes
- they make the comparison between the topic and vehicle explicit by using the word like or as
ex: sitting like a bump on a log and flat as a pancake
Hyperbole
uses exaggeration for emphasis or effect.
ex: I nearly died laughing
Idioms
expressions containing both a literal and a figurative meaning.
ex: We’re in the same boat
- interpret the meanings of idioms more correctly in multiple-choice tasks than in explanation tasks,
Opaque idioms
demonstrate little relationship between the literal interpretation and the figurative interpretation
a transparent idiom
s an extension of the literal meaning
Irony and Sarcasm.
a speaker’s intentions differ from the literal meaning of the words he or she uses.
- they differ according to whether the statement relates to an expectation about a specific individual or a general expectation
- 9- to 10-year-olds are able to distinguish speakers’ intentions, and they consider sarcastic comments to be more negative or “mean”
irony
refers to unmet general expectations that are not the fault of an individual,
sarcasm
refers to a specific individual’s failure to meet an expectation.
dramatic irony
an audience is aware of facts of which characters are unaware.
Proverbs
statements expressing the conventional values, beliefs, and wisdom of a society
Commenting:
Blood is thicker than water
Interpreting:
His bark is worse than his bite
Advising:
Don’t count your chickens before they hatch
Warning:
It’s better to be safe than sorry.
Encouraging:
Every cloud has a silver lining.
morphophonemic development:
development in the interaction between morphological and phonological processes
- differs phonologically from sound modifications in other pluralized words
- vowel shifting: which occurs when the form class of a word changes when adding a derivational suffix.
- how to use stress and emphasis to distinguish phrases from compound words
- use of derivational prefixes and derivational suffixes.
Phonological Development:
ability to segment syllables from multisyllabic words and their ability to blend and manipulate the sounds in words.
derivational prefixes:
to the beginning of a word, it changes the word’s meaning.
ex: dis, un, non ,ir ,
derivational suffixes:
we add a derivational suffix to the end of a word, it can change the word’s form class, meaning, or both.
ex: hood,ment,ter,sy,ly
Complex syntax
refers to developmentally advanced grammatical structures that mark a “literate,” or decontextualized, language style
- indicates they have achieved more advanced levels of grammar
- include noun-phrase postmodification with past participles (a dance called the waltz), complex verb phrases using the perfective aspect (Stephanie has arrived from Vancouver), adverbial conjunctions (only, consequently), and passive voice construction (The fish were caught by an experienced fisherman)
- related to the complexity of their caregivers’ syntax
persuasive writing
is to adopt a particular point of view and convince the reader to adopt the same stance or to take action consistent with that point of view.
- a challenging communicative skill that students develop during the school-age period.
Complex Syntax: narrative tasks
exhibit greater syntactic complexity during the narrative task because the fables themselves provide a model of highly sophisticated language, which might prime the adolescents to use com-plex language as well. Additionally, fables include complex story content, which might prompt adolescents to draw on their cognitive and linguistic resources more fully than when engaging in a conversation.
upon graduation from high school, they have command over about
60,000 words
school-age children learn new words in at least three ways:
through direct instruction, contextual abstraction, and morphological analysis.
Direct Instruction.
involves learning the meaning of a word directly from a more knowledgeable source.
- another person or dictionary
- children do not begin to use dictionaries to learn the meanings of words until about second grade (age 7 or 8 years).
Contextual abstraction
involves using context clues in both spoken and written forms of language to determine the meanings of unfamiliar words.
- Children form an initial representation of a word through fast mapping. After repeated exposure, children refine a word’s representation through the process of slow mapping
- we make either pragmatic inferences or logical inferences about the meanings of the words
Pragmatic inferences
about the meaning of a word bring an individual’s personal world knowledge or background knowledge to the text.
Logical inferences
use only the information the text provides and are more difficult to make than pragmatic inferences.
Morphological analysis
involves analyzing the lexical, inflectional, and derivational morphemes of unfamiliar words to infer their meanings.
- younger children (ages 6–10 years) become proficient at using morphemes to infer the meanings of new words, their older counterparts (ages 9–13 years) are proficient at using both morphological information and context clues to arrive at the meanings of unfamiliar words.
Lexical ambiguity
occurs for words and phrases with multiple meanings, such as That was a real bear, has several meanings.
- it has 3 forms
Homophones
words that sound alike but have different meanings.
EX: Spelled alike: brown bear vs. bear weight
Spelled Different: (brown bear vs. bare hands), are called heterographs
Homographs:
words that are spelled the same way but have different meanings.
EX: row a boat vs. row of homes: heteronyms
Sound different: may sound different from each other (record player vs. record a movie
Homonyms
are words that are alike in spelling and pronunciation but differ in meaning (brown bear vs. bear weight).
Sentential ambiguity
involves ambiguity within different components of sentences. It includes not only lexical ambiguity but also phonological ambiguity, surface-structure ambiguity, and deep-structure ambiguity
Phonological ambiguity
occurs with a sound sequence that carries more than one interpretation; it often occurs when a listener confuses the boundaries between words (I can’t wait for the weekend vs. I can’t wait for the weak end)
Surface-structure ambiguity
results when words within a sentence can be grouped in two different ways, with each grouping conveying a different interpretation (I fed her birdseed vs. I fed her bird seed),
deep-structure ambiguity
noun serves as the subject of a sentence in one interpretation and as an object in another (e.g., The duck is ready to eat can mean “The duck is hungry” or “The duck is ready to be eaten”
Literate language
is the term used to describe the language that is highly decontextualized.
- a child must be able to use language without the aid of context cues to support meaning; he or she must rely on language itself to make meaning.
oral language
the linguistic aspects of communicative competence necessary for communicating basic desires and needs (phonology, syntax, morphology, and semantics).
highly contextualized style
Highly contextualized language depends heavily on the immediate context and environment.
- referential pronouns
- when children have mastered oral language can they begin to “talk to learn” or to use language to reflect on past experiences and reason about, predict, and plan for future experiences using decontextualized language
Four specific features of literate language that children learn to use are as follows
Elaborated noun phrases, Adverbs, Conjunctions, Mental and linguistic verbs
Elaborated noun phrases:
a group of words consisting of a noun and one or more modifiers providing additional information about the noun, including articles (a, an, the), possessives (my, his, their), demonstratives (this, that, those), quantifiers (every, each, some), wh-words (what, which, whichever), and adjectives (tall, long, ugly).
age 5: designated on phrases
age 8: descriptive noun phrases
age 11: elaborated noun phrases with postmodification
Conjunctions:
words that organize information and clarify relationships among elements.
-EX: and, for, or, yet, but, nor, and so
Subordinating conjunctions: after, although, as, because, and therefore
Mental and linguistic verbs:
refer to various acts of thinking and speaking, respectively
- Mental verbs include think, know, believe, imagine, feel, consider, suppose, decide, forget, and remember. - Linguistic verbs include say, tell, speak, shout, answer, call, reply, and yell
Adverbs:
a syntactic form that modifies verbs and enhances the explicitness of action and event descriptions.
- they add additional info about time, manner, degree, place, reason, and affirmation or negtion
Functional flexibility
the ability to use language for a variety of communicative purposes or functions.
Expository Discourse:
the language used to convey information
- Three important factors related to the comprehension of the expository text include domain-specific topic knowledge, text coherence, and text cohesion
domain-specific topic knowledge (also called world knowledge)
highly associated with comprehending expository text than general background knowledge because expository text communicates very specific information about a domain.
- regulator and buoyancy compensator.
Persuasive Discourse:
the language used to convince another listener or an audience to adopt a certain stance or to take action consistent with a particular point of view
seven skills required for successful persuasion
- Adjust to listener characteristics (e.g., age, authority, familiarity).
- State advantages as a reason to comply.
- Anticipate and reply to counterarguments.
- Use positive techniques such as politeness and bargaining as strategies to increase compliance
.5. Avoid negative strategies such as whining and begging. - Generate a large number and variety of arguments
.7. Control the discourse assertively.
children gradually improve their conversational abilities—for example, by doing the following
- Staying on topic longer
- Having extended dialogues with other people that last for several conversational turns
- Making a larger number of relevant and factual comments
- Shifting smoothly from one topic to another
- Adjusting the content and style of their speech to the listener’s thoughts and feelings
By about age 7 years,
they begin to use indirect language, including hints, and they recognize other people’s indirect requests for action
Narrative Development
more complex than a conversation because the speaker carries the linguistic load and the listener or audience takes a relatively passive role; by contrast, in conversation, multiple participants share responsibility for the give-and-take of information.
- children ages 5–6 years may include only one episode in their narratives, older children may include two or more.
Younger children (about 5–6 years old) can produce at least four types of narratives
- Recounts involve telling a story about personal experiences, or retelling a story the person has heard or read.
- Accounts, like recounts, are also a type of personal narrative. However, they are spontaneous.
- Event casts are similar to how sportscasters narrate during a sporting event
- Fictionalized stories are invented narratives and usually have a main character who must overcome a challenge or solve a problem.
An episode
includes a problem or challenge and all the elements that relate to solving the problem or challenge.
Story grammar
refers to the components of a narrative (e.g., characters, setting, episodes), as well as the rules that govern how these components are organized.
expressive elaboration:
- described the combination of narrative elements in an expressive or artful manner of storytelling
children ages 5–12 years to study the development of children’s expressive elaboration in three main categories:
Appendages, Orientations, Evaluations
Appendages:
Cues that a narrator is telling or ending a story (e.g., a formal introduction to a story, such as “Once upon a time …”; a summary prior to beginning a story; a formal ending to a story, such as “The end”)
Orientations:
Elements that provide more detail to the setting and characters
Evaluations:
Ways to convey narrator or character perspectives (e.g., using interesting modifiers, repetition for emphasis, internal-state words, or dialogue)
gender Differences in Vocabulary Use and Conversational Style
- women use more polite words, such as please and thank you
1. Use of more tag questions (“You like lasagna, don’t you?”)
2. Use of rising intonation in declarative sentences, whereby declarative sentences sound more like questions
3. Use of polite requests more often than commands - men use coarser words and swear more often; they are more assertive
children use more instances of tag questions and compliments when their conversational partner uses this style, and more negative comments, dis-agreements, and directives when their conversational partner uses this speech style.
context and social status effects on language use may be stronger than gender effects
One example concerns hedges, or linguistic devices that soften utterances by signaling imprecision and noncommitment, such as about, sort of, you know, possibly, and perhaps. Dixon and Foster (1997) found no effect of gender on speakers’ use of hedges in conversation, but they did find effects of speaking contexts on hedging. Specifically, their research results revealed that both men and women use fewer hedges in competitive contexts than in noncompetitive contexts and more hedges when addressing males than when addressing females.
Gender Differences in Conversational Pragmatics
Women usually face their conversational partners and make eye contact,
men are more distant stance and make less eye contact
- Men also change conversational topics more frequently than women, whereas women tend to exhaust conversational topics more thoroughly
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
Describes the inability to produce the spoken form of the word one intends to use. the result from difficulties in retrieving the sounds of words
- Older adults also have more difficulties retrieving the spelling of familiar words
- older adults tend to speak slowly; speech rate tends to decrease as adults age
- remember, proper names seems to decline with age
- Naming ability also declines
- difficulties with understanding others’ affective prosody, or the phonological characteristics of one’s speech that convey emotion, such as happiness or sadness.
- older adults have more difficulties with higher-order language processes
formative evaluations
to inform potential language-learning activities, or to measure the language-development process.
summative evaluations
to measure the products and final outcomes of language learning and development.
EX: Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test—Fourth Edition- assessment of vocabulary knowledge
Screenings
brief assessments usually performed at the beginning of the school year to help identify students who need extra assistance in certain areas.
Comprehensive evaluations:
conducted any time during the school year to obtain an in-depth probe of a specific child’s instructional needs
- to find a language disability
Progress monitoring assessments are:
conducted routinely (at least three times a year) to document a child’s rate of improvement in an area and to monitor the efficacy of curricula and interventions.
Goldman–Fristoe Test of Articulation–2
To measure a school-age child’s phonological development
- appropriate for children and adolescents through age 21 years.
- the examiner uses pictures and verbal cues to sample the child’s or adolescent’s spontaneous and imitative sound production of consonants. The examiner can then determine whether he or she correctly produces specific speech sounds or sound sequences in different contexts
communication units (C units) or terminable units (T units)
units both consist of an independent clause and any of its modifiers, such as a dependent clause. The difference between C units and T units is that C units apply to oral language analysis; they can include incomplete sentences and sentence fragments. T units, by comparison, apply to written language transcripts (e.g., a written essay) and include only complete sentences.
Test of Language Development—Intermediate, Fourth Edition (TOLD–I:4
measures syntactic development
- appropriate for children ages 8 years through 17 years, 11 months.
- It assesses a student’s understanding and meaningful use of spoken words, as well as different aspects of grammar.
Measurement of Lexical Meaning
- Examine transcripts for instances in which the child used a word differently than an adult would use it (e.g., overextensions, underextensions, and incorrect referents).
- Examine transcripts for gestures, pronouns, and indefinite and idiosyncratic terms that replace specific words, which may indicate the child has a deficit in a particular class of meaning (e.g., verbs of motion, superordinate terms). Determine whether the deficit is in one class or multiple classes.
- Examine transcripts for the absence of particular word classes, including noun modifiers and conjunctions.
PPVT–4 and the Test of Word Knowledge
Test of Word Knowledge
ages 5–17 years and evaluates students’ semantic and lexical knowledge through their ability to understand and use vocabulary.
the Children’s Communication Checklist, Version 2
a parent-report instrument measuring communicative strengths and weaknesses for children and adolescents between ages 4 and 16 years. It includes 70 items divided into 10 scales.
The Test of Pragmatic Language—Second Edition
is a clinician-administered (e.g., SLP) assessment of pragmatic language skills in children and adolescents ages 6 to 18 years, 11 months. To complete the assessment, an assessor asks a student to respond to a set of hypo-thetical situations and provide a rationale for each response.
Conversational Skills Rating Scale
conversational competence in interpersonal settings.
Test of Language Competence—Expanded
The following subtests of the TLC–Expanded measure students’ higher-level language functions: Ambiguous Sentences, Listening Comprehension: Making Inferences, Oral Expression: Recreating Speech Acts, and Figurative Language
