Chapter 9 Flashcards
Motivation
a need or desire that directs behavior; typically a ‘want’ or a reason
- they whys of behavior
Instinct Theory
i. Instincts - inborn (unlearned) behavior patterns of a species, biologically transmitted from generation to generation; observed in animals, but humans do not seem to demonstrate
ii. Researchers label instincts as fixed-action patterns and have shown that many animals are born to act in a certain way in certain situations
Drive-Reduction Theory
Need, drive, homeostasis
Need
a state or condition of deprivation; can by physiological (biological) or psychological
○ Physiological needs are often similar between people because people have similar genetic make-ups (i.e. Biological characteristics), while psychological needs are different because people have different learning experiences
- drive-reduction theory
Drive
force that motivates an organism to take action; a condition of arousal associated with a need
○ Drive-reduction theory states that unpleasant needs generate a drive to satisfy those needs
i. When a need increases, so does our drive to reduce it
- drive-reduction theory
Homeostasis
the tendency of the body to maintain a steady state equilibrium
Incentive Theory
○ Incentive - a stimulus (Positive or negative) seen as capable of motivating behavior; the role of rewards
i. Depending on our learning and experiences, almost anything can be incentive - food, money, an attractive person, avoiding punishments, etc.
Self-Determination Theory
○ Extrinsic Motivation - motivating factors that come from rewards or punishments; External forces
○ Intrinsic Motivation - motivating factors that originate within ourselves; Internal forces
Motivational Conflict Theory
○ Kurt Lewin’s Four Types of Conflict
i. Approach-approach - one must choose between two desirable options - candy
ii. Avoidance-avoidance - one must choose between two unattractive options - starve or eat someone
iii. Approach-avoidance - only one choice is presented, but it has pros and cons - ice cream but lactose-intolerance
iv. Multiple approach-avoidance - many options are available, but none are ideal - college search, getting another ca
Arousal
a general level of activity or motivation in an organism
Sensation-Seeking Theory
○ Proposes that one’s need for varied/novel experiences is the basis for motivation
Optimal Arousal Theory
○ One mode of thinking is that human motivation aims not to eliminate arousal but to seek optimal levels of arousal
○ Lacking stimulations, we feel bored and look for ways to increase arousal
○ But if we experience too much stimulation, we look for a way to decrease arousal
○ Yerkes-Dodson law - the principle that performance increases with arousal - only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases
Humanistic Theory
○ People are also motivated by the conscious desire for personal growth
○ Abraham Maslow
○ Self-actualization - the self-initiated striving to become what one is capable of being; often sought through hobbies, work, or aesthetic experiences such as music, art, poetry
Need for Affiliation
The need to build and maintain associations or relationships with others
i. Prompts us to make friends, join groups, and to prefer to do things with others rather than alone
Need for Achievement
The need to master skills or ideas, or to accomplish difficult things
i. High N Ach individuals seem to prefer challenges and are willing to take moderate risks to achieve their goals
Need for Power
The need to control or have influence over others, and be seen as a powerful individual
i. People with strong need for power are more apt to belong to organizations and seek some sort of office
The Hunger Drive
○ A drop in glucose (blood sugar - provides major source of energy for body) indicates that we have been burning energy and need to replenish it by eating
○ This information is communicated via blood vessels, the stomach, intestines, and liver to the hypothalamus, which helps regulate aspects of motivation and hunger
○ Satiety
satiety
the state of being satisfied
i. Chewing and swallowing provides some sensations of satiety
Ghrelin
secreted by empty stomach; sends “Feed me” signals to the brain
Leptin
secreted by fat cells; causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger
○ The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland, which then secretes the hormones to regulate the feelings of hunger or satiety
Emotion
a subjective state of feeling that involves physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious cognitive experience; AKA Affect
○ Many strong emotions spark activity in the autonomic nervous system
Generally speaking, the greater the autonomic arousal, the more intense the emotion
Paul Ekman
○ Social psychologist * observed/researched facial expressions across a variety of cultures and pointed out that seven emotions were almost identical everywhere
i. The seven basic cross-cultural emotions: anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, fear, and contempt
○ Display rules for emotional expression can differ widely among cultures
i. These rules may regulate how people from different genders, ages, or even socioeconomic classes display and/or interpret emotions
Seasonal Affective Disorder
(SAD) - a form of depression that strikes during the late autumn and winter months
i. Sufferers become listless, drowsy, and withdrawn
ii. Light therapy is a way to combat it
○ James-Lange Theory
i. Emotions follow physiological responses to events
ii. (Environmental stim -> body responds -> feel emotion)
○ Cannon-Bard Theory
i. An event/stimulus triggers bodily responses and the subjective experience of an emotion simultaneously
○ Facial Feedback Theory
i. Facial expressions not only reflect an emotional experience, but provide muscular feedback to the brain indicating a particular emotional experience
ii. Researchers believe there is a similar behavioral feedback effect in which behavior influences our own and others’ thoughts, feelings, and actions
○ Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory
i. AKA Theory of Cognitive Appraisal
ii. Emotions have two ingredients - physiological arousal and a cognitive appraisal
Broaden-and-Build Theory
i. Propose that positive emotional experiences tend to broaden awareness and encourage (build) new actions and thoughts
ii. Likewise, negative emotions tend to reduce awareness and narrow thinking/action
i. The thought-action repertoire: over time, positive or negative emotional thinking becomes a sort of mental muscle memory and we approach life in that way, almost habitually
Stress
The process by which we perceive and respond to challenging events called stressors
○ Our interpretation of events affects our experience of those events, and our reactions (physiologically and psychologically)
eustress
○ If we appraised the stress as motivation/beneficial, we will be aroused and focused
distress
○ If we appraise an event as a threat/debilitating, we will experience a negative reaction
Han’s Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome
(GAS)
i. Phase 1 - Alarm: stress is encountered
ii. Phase 2 - Resistance: the sympathetic nervous system is activated (fight or flight)
iii. Phase 3 - Exhaustion: running on fumes as resources are spent; you become more vulnerable to illness
iv. Selye’s point - > although the body is good at coping with temporary stress, prolonged exposure can damage it
Type A
Competitive, impatient, aggressive, and anger-prone personality
Type B
Relaxed, cooperative, easygoing personality
Catharsis
expressing and releasing emotion, such as anger - does work to reduce harmful stress, but research shows that time and distraction do too
Tend-and-befriend theory
some people react to stress by tending to their own needs, or the needs of others; they also seek support/connections with others
i. Studies show this phenomenon seems to occur mostly with women… estrogens seem to enhance oxytocin, while androgens inhibit its release
Problem-focused coping
attempting to alleviate stress by changing the stressor or the way we interact with it
We tend to use this approach if we feel we have a sense of control over the situation and can change the circumstances (or how we deal with them
Emotion-focused coping
ignoring/avoiding a stressor and attending to our emotional needs
i. Strategies may include meditation/deep breathing, or taking medication aimed at reducing stressful emotional response
Biofeedback
feeding back information about a bodily function
External locus of control
perception that change or outside forces controls our fate
Internal locus of control
perception that we control our own fate
Subjective well-being
a level of self-perceived happiness
Relative deprivation
the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself
i. We constantly compare ourselves to others… and feel goof or bad depending on those ‘others’
