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AP Psych > Chapter 2 > Flashcards

Chapter 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

phrenology

A

studying bumps on the skull) was a popular tool for determining a person’s mental abilities and character traits
led to…

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2
Q

localization of function

A

the idea that various brain regions have particular functions
from phrenology

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3
Q

Neurons

A

neural cells specially designed to share information electrochemically with other neurons
○ Throughout life, new neurons are born and unused neurons wither away

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4
Q

Cell body

A

the cell’s nucleus and life-support center; AKA Soma (body)

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5
Q

Dendrites

A

fibers that receive and integrate information, conducting it toward the cell body (mouth)

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6
Q

Axon

A

the cell’s single lengthy fiber that passes messages through its branches to other neurons (pooper)

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7
Q

myelin (myelin sheath)

A

Much as home electrical wire is insulated, a segmented layer of fatty tissue called insulates the axons of some neurons and helps speed their impulses
i. As myelin is laid down up to about age 25, neural efficiency, judgment, and self-control increases
ii. If the myelin sheath degenerates, multiple sclerosis results - meaning communication to muscles slows, with eventual loss of muscle control

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8
Q

multiple sclerosi

A

If the myelin sheath degenerates, meaning communication to muscles slows, with eventual loss of muscle control

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9
Q

glial cells

A

Supporting these billions of nerve cells are (like worker bees)
i. They provide structure, ‘insulating’ myelin, communication, and mop up neurotransmitters

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10
Q

Action Potential

A

neuron sends a message by firing an electrical impulse down its axon

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11
Q

excitatory

A

Most neural signals - they transmit the flow of information to make an action potential

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12
Q

inhibitory

A

some - regulate the activation of excitatory signals

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13
Q

threshold

A

○ If excitatory signals exceed inhibitory signals by a minimum intensity, the combined signals trigger an action potential

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14
Q

synapse

A

○ Info is sent from the axon terminal of one cell to the dendrite of another, but it must cross the (gap/junction between the two cells)

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15
Q

neurotransmitters

A

○ The messages are sent from the axons across the synapse through the release of (specialized biochemical messages stores in sacs in the axon terminal); NT’s
i. Excess “” are reabsorbed by the sending neuron, or drift away and are broken down by the body’s enzymes

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16
Q

Reuptake

A

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

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17
Q

Acetylcholine

A

involved in control of muscles and memory (a-set-l-cole-lean)
i. Myasthenia gravis is a disorder in which the immune system make antibodies that block ACh receptor sites - with fewer receptor sites, the muscles receive fewer signals and become weak

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18
Q

Dopamine

A

involved in reward/pleasure/emotion, motor behavior, and attention
i. Not enough: Contributes to psychological disorders like Schizophrenia
ii. Too much: Tremors and decreased mobility role in Parkinson’s disease

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19
Q

Serotonin

A

Sleep, mood, and appetite
little - depression

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20
Q

Norepinephrine

A

Alertness and arousal; “Fight-or-Flight”
little - depression

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21
Q

Endorphins

A

Morphine-like effects on the mind and body for pain and pleasure

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22
Q

Substance P

A

Transmits pain signals

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23
Q

GABA

A

Inhibitory neurotransmitter; increases tranquility
little - seizures or insomnia

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24
Q

Glutamate

A

excitatory - involved in learning and memory
too much - migraines

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25
Q

Nervous system

A

the body’s electrochemical communication network consisting of the nerve cells of the central and peripheral nervous systems

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26
Q

Reflex arc

A

Three types of neurons carry information through the nervous system.
Sensory Neurons
Motor Neurons
Interneurons

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27
Q

Sensory Neurons

A

Carry incoming information (from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors) to the brain and spinal cord; aka Afferent neurons

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28
Q

Motor neurons

A

Carry outgoing information (instructions) from the brain and spinal cord to the body’s muscles and glands; aka Efferent neurons

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29
Q

Interneurons

A

Neurons located within the brain and spinal cord; they process information between the sensory input and motor input

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30
Q

Central Nervous System

A

○ CNS comprised of the neurons of the brain and spinal cord
○ The brain and spinal cord are bathed in a cerebrospinal fluid, which helps to cushion the areas, flush waste products, and even carry some chemical signals
-Brain
-Spinal Cord

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31
Q

The Brain

A

i. The brain’s neurons cluster into work groups called neural networks

32
Q

The Spinal Cord

A

Reflex, Reflex arc

33
Q

Reflex

A

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus

34
Q

Reflex arc

A

Our body set up so that neural activity (finger touching hot flame) travels via sensory neurons to the interneurons in the spinal cord. These interneurons respond by activating motor neurons leading to (in this case) the muscles in your arm

35
Q

Peripheral Nervous System

A

Basically all the other nerves of the body
Somatic
Autonomic

36
Q

Somatic

A

transmits sensory messages to CNS and allows voluntary movement (activated by touch, temp, pain, body positions, sight, etc.)
nervous system

37
Q

Autonomic

A

regulates vital, automatic functions of internal organs (heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, digestion, etc.)
i. Sympathetic - arouses and expends energy; “fight or flight”; activated at times of stress
ii. Parasympathetic - conserves energy; returns body’s functions to names levels
nervous system

38
Q

Homeostasis

A

a state of equilibrium/normalcy for the body

39
Q

Endocrine system

A

○ The endocrine system is a communication system which secretes hormones (chemical messengers in the bloodstream), which influences our interest in food, aggression, etc.
○ While the nervous system sends messages lickety-split, endocrine messages take several seconds or more to reach their destinations
Melatonin
Adrenaline

40
Q

Melatonin

A

produced by the brain and helps regulate sleep/maintain circadian rhythms

41
Q

Adrenaline

A

released when we experience stress; linked to fight or flight response to aid breathing/blood circulations

42
Q

Pituitary Gland

A

the most influential gland of ES - regulates growth hormones, cortisol, and oxytocin
endocrine system

43
Q

oxytocin

A

important for contractions and trust
Regulated by Pituitary Gland

44
Q

Lesion

A

tissue destruction or removal

45
Q

EEG

A

Function
i. Electrodes measure overall brain activity

46
Q

CAT/CT

A

Anatomy
i. Beefed up x-ray taken at different angles

47
Q

PET

A

Function
i. Radioactive glucose… gobbled up during brain activity

48
Q

fMRI

A

Function
i. Detectors transmit info abt areas of naturally occurring oxygen metabolism via blood in the brain

49
Q

MRI

A

Anatomy
i. Magnetic fields from water molecules show 3-D soft tissue scan of brain (density and location of brain material)

50
Q

brainstem

A

oldest part and central core of the brain
i. Responsible for autonomic survival functions
ii. Its base is the medulla, which controls heartbeat and breathing
○ Sitting at the top of the brainstem is the thalamus, which is the brain’s sensory control center
i. It receives info from all the senses (except smell), an routes the information to the appropriate higher brain regions

51
Q

reticular activating system

A

Inside the brainstem (right between your ears)
i. It is a neural network extending from the spinal cord right up through the thalamus – controls sleep/wake transitions and arousal

52
Q

cerebellum

A

Extending from the rear of the brainstem is the baseball-sized
i. Functions include coordinating movement and balance, enabling nonverbal learning and discriminating time
ii. Ties to well-rehearsed movements such as dancing/athletics or playing an instrument
iii. Under the influence of alcohol, coordination suffers

53
Q

Limbic System

A

a neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; it is associated with emotions and drives
contains the hypothalamus (which controls the nearby pituitary gland), the amygdala, and the hippocampus

54
Q

hypothalamus

A

Just below the thalamus
i. It directs maintenance activities (The 5 Fs: Food/Fight/Flight/Fahrenheit/Sex), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward; runs your biological clock

55
Q

amygdala

A

two lima-bean-sized/almond shaped neural clusters linked to the emotions, especially fear and aggression

56
Q

hippocampus

A

helps process memories of facts and events, before being sent to other location sin the cerebral cortex
i. People who lose the hippocampus to surgery or injury show an inability to form new memories of facts and events

57
Q

cerebrum

A

the wrinkly stuff we see/associate as ‘brain’

58
Q

corpus callosum

A

The cerebral cortex is composed of two sides (hemispheres) connected by a group of nerve fibers

	i. The corpus callosum acts as a communication bridge between the two hemispheres
	ii. The brain is contralateral - meaning: information received on one side of the body is transmitted to the opposite hemisphere of the brain
59
Q

Frontal

A

Higher processing: such as speaking, thinking, judgement, personality, and emotion

60
Q

Parietal

A

Receives sensory input for pain, warmth and cold. Functions also include perception

61
Q

Occipital

A

Visual information interpreted

62
Q

Temporal

A

Auditory/linguistic information interpreted

63
Q

Sensory and motor cortexes

A

○ The Sensory (parietal) and Motor (frontal) cortexes are located in the very small strips, and they control the opposite side of the body
○ Damage to a lobe/area may affect sensory ability but may not totally eliminate it

64
Q

Association areas

A

areas of the cerebral cortex involved in higher cognitive functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking (not sensory or controlling muscle movement)
○ Association areas are found in all four lobes - damage to any of them rarely affects motor skills… it primarily affects cognitive skills or personality

65
Q

Neuroplasticity

A

the brain’s ability to ‘rewire’, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experiences
i. Studies show that the younger you are when the brain receives damage, the more likely it is to reorganize and make greater use of the unaffected areas

66
Q

‘split-brain’ operation

A

corpus callosum is separated
cooperation between hemispheres isn’t possible so the separated systems work as best they can… one usually faster than the other
○ Right field of each eye/left hemi; left field of each eye/right hemi
i. Split brain operations do not affect optic chiasm - the place where the nerves connecting the eyes to the brain cross

67
Q

Dual Processing

A

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

68
Q

Blindsight

A

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it

69
Q

Heredity

A

genetic transfer from parent to offspring; nature

70
Q

Environment

A

non-genetic influences; nurture

71
Q

Identical

A

monozygotic) - twins develop from a single egg that splits

72
Q

Fraternal

A

(dizygotic) - twins develop from separate fertilized eggs; genetically no closer than ordinary brothers/sisters… they just share a prenatal environment

73
Q

Heritability

A

the extent to which variation within a group can be attributed to inherited genetic factors
Ranged from 0 to 1; 0 indicated environment totally responsible for differences in the trait and 1 means that all variation in the trait can be accounted for genetically

74
Q

Epigenetics

A

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change
i. Looks at what environmental factors turn genes on or off and how that info is passed to offspring

75
Q

Evolutionary psychology

A

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

76
Q

natural selection

A

traits that better help an organism survive and procreate will likely be passed to offspring

77
Q

mutations

A

random errors in gene replication that lead to change

AP Psych (4 decks)

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