Chapter 5 Flashcards
Learning
The process of acquiring new and relatively permanent information or behaviors
○ The process of ** associations is called conditioning, and it takes two main forms: Classical and Operant
Habituation
Decrease in responsiveness with repeated or enduring exposure to a stimulus; learning to ‘tune out’ a stimulus
i. ** like sensory adaptation, involves a diminished response… but in this case, it’s a form of learning
Classical Conditioning
we learn by association; often involuntary (i.e. Lighting often signals a crack of thunder, so we brace ourselves)
a type of learning in which an organisms comes to associate one stimulus with another stimulus - which then elicits a response
Operant conditioning
we learn by reinforcement; often voluntary (i.e. saying ‘please’ gets us a reward, so we repeat the act of being polite)
Pavlov
○ In what is arguably psychology’s most famous research, Ivan Pavlov explored what we now call classical conditioning
This laid the foundation for many of behaviorist John B. Watson’s ideas - urging psychologists to move away from mental processes, and to focus on observable behavior
Neutral stimulus
(NS) - a stimulus that elicits no association or response before conditioning
i. To prove ‘learning’, Pavlov paired a neutral stimulus with food in the dog’s mouth
ii. Pavlov sounded a tone with food in the dog’s mouth. The dog soon learned the link. Now, the tone alone caused salivation
Unconditional stimulus
(UCS) is something that naturally brings about a response without having to be learned
Unconditioned response
(UCR) is the reaction that occurs naturally in response to some stimulus
conditioned stimulus
(CS) is originally a NS that, after association with an UCS, comes to trigger a CR
conditioned response
(CR) is the learned response to the conditioned stimulus
i. The UCR and CR are almost always the same response… the stimulus that elicits the response is the crucial difference
higher-order conditioning
Classical conditioning is biologically adaptive
a new NS can become a new CS
i. Tends to be weaker - but still has value/influence
ii. Bit by dog - being near dogs makes you nervous - hearing a dog makes you nervous, but less
Acquisition
Initial learning; associating a NS with the UCS so that the NS begins triggering the CR; studies show about 0.5-1 sec is best
Extinction
Diminished response, which occurs if the CS appears repeatedly by itself (without the UCS)
Spontaneous recovery -
The (temporary) reappearance of a formerly extinguishes response, following a rest period
Generalization
The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to a CS\
Discrimination
The learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other distinct stimuli
Pavlov’s Legacy
○ Pavlov taught us that significant psychological phenomena can be studies objectively
○ Pavlov’s work influenced John B. Watson’s ideas about human emotion and behavior
i. Watson conditioned “Little Albert” to fear animals using a loud noise
○ The work that Watson and others did demonstrating that emotional responses can be classically conditioned formed the basis of therapeutic interventions for many mental disorders
i. Today, classical conditioning techniques are used to help improve human health and well-being (from drug and food cravings, to eliminating fears, to immune response simply via taste)
aversive
○ Conditioning can be
** - typically taste **
One-trial learning
an association is acquired through just one pairing of the stimulus and response, and is not strengthened by further exposures
i. Edwin Guthrie developed this idea and felt all conditioning was classical - he did not believe rewards/punishments reinforced behavior
Operant Conditioning
Learning to associate certain behavior/actions with consequences
i. ‘Consequences’ can be positive (good) or negative (bad)… we just tend to think of them as negative/bad
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
studying learning in cats… by placing them in a box
Behaviors followed by favorable consequences (reinforcing) became more likely, while those followed by unfavorable consequences (punishing) became less likely
BF Skinner
work elaborated on Thorndike’s, and he developed behavioral analysis, which revealed principles of behavior control
Operant Chamber
(aka Skinner Box); a chamber containing a lever or button that an animal could manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of pressing during a specified time
i. What serves as a reinforcement depends on the subject, preferences, and the conditions
Shaping
reinforcers that guide behavior toward closer approximations of the desired behavior; a hint that they’re on the right track
i. By rewarding successive approximations of the desired behavior, while ignoring all other responses researchers (and animal trainers) gradually shape complex behaviors
Positive reinforcement
i. Adds a desirable stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior
ii. Petting a dog when they come up to you
○ Negative reinforcement
i. Reduces/removes an aversive stimulus to increase frequency of a behavior
ii. Annoying seatbelt chime goes away when you buckle in
○ Primary reinforcer
i. A reinforcing stimulus that is in and of itself rewarding; unlearned
ii. Food, liquid, rest
Conditioned/Secondary reinforcer
i. A stimulus that is learned, or gains reinforcing power by being associated with a primary reinforcer
ii. Money
continuous reinforcement
, behavior is reinforced every time behavior occurs - learning occurs rapidly, which is the best option for mastering a behavior
i. Unfortunately for researchers, extinction can occur rapidly too
intermittent/ partial reinforcement
a response is sometimes reinforced, sometimes not - learning is slower to appear, but resistance to extinction is also greater
fixed-ratio schedule
Variable-ratio schedule
Fixed-interval schedule
Variable-interval schedule
Fixed-ratio schedule
i. Reinforces a response after a set number of responses (every so many)
ii. Ex: McDonald’s gives you a free coffee after you buy 5
Variable-ratio schedule
i. Reinforces a response after an unpredictable/random number of responses
ii. Slot machines
Fixed-interval schedule
i. Reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed (every so often)
ii. Paycheck
Variable-interval schedule
i. Reinforces a response at varied/unpredictable time intervals
ii. Pop quiz
Punishment
administers an undesirable consequence or withdraws something desirable in an attempt to decrease the frequency of a behavior
i. Spanking a kid; cop presence to avoid a ticket
Positive punishment
adds an aversive stimulus to decrease behavior
i. Spraying water on a dog, getting a traffic ticket
Negative punishment
removes a rewarding stimulus to decrease a behavior; sometimes referred to as ‘omission training’
i. Take away a teen’s driving privileges for a bit because they got a ticket
Superstitious behaviors
occur when ‘consequences’ reinforce unrelated behaviors
ii. We cling to habits because we don’t want to risk messing up that good thing that happened, despite knowing how irrational the practice is
biological constraints
An animal’s capacity for conditioning is limited by - so learning some associations is easier than learning others
instinctive drift
During operant training, animals may display *the tendency for a learned behavior to revert back to biologically predisposed patterns)
Biological preparedness
biological predisposition to learn some associations faster than others
i. Survival
John Garcia
studied taste aversion in humans and animals and found it to be strangely powerful/lasting
The Garcia Effect
Humans/ animals stay away from food that made them sick… for a long time
Cognitive map
a mental representation of spatial environments and semantic networks of information; tied to schema
Latent Learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Insight
sudden realization of solution (without much trail and error); a-ha moment
i. We may puzzle over a problem and then suddenly, the pieces fall together and we perceive a solution
○ Gestalt Psychologist Wolfgang Kohler devoted years to studying the cognitive aspects of learning
Extrinsic motivation
learning/doing in hopes of receiving a reward
Intrinsic motivation
learning/doing for personal satisfaction
Social learning theory
states that acquiring new skills or information can occur by observation
Vicarious conditioning -
learning by observing other’s interactions with a stimulus/consequence, and then modifying own behavior
Modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
i. We learn our language by observing and imitating others
Studies show that the more similar a model is, the more likely the behavior is learned
Albert Bandura
did pioneering research on observational behavior
i. His Bobo doll experiments in the early 1960s involved how we learn by watching and imitating, rather than learning associations between events
mirror neurons
○ Our brain’s frontal lobes have demonstrated ability to mirror the activity of another’s brain
-provide a neural basis for everyday imitation, empathy, and observational learning
Prosocial behavior
Positive, constructive, helpful behavior
Antisocial behavior
Negative, destructive, unsympathetic behavior
Learned helplessness
Feeling a person (or animal) learns when they are unable to control their environment while exposed to repeated aversive events
○ Losing control provokes an outpouring of stress hormones (including cortisol), which increase blood pressure and decrease immune response
