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Psyc 100A > Chapter 9 > Flashcards

Chapter 9 Flashcards

1
Q

Thinking/Cognition

A

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

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2
Q

Concepts

A

mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

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3
Q

Advantages of concepts

A

provide a kind of mental shortcut, simplifies thinking, gives lots of information with little cognitive effort

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4
Q

Prototypes

A

a mental image or best example of a category that incorporated all the features we associate with it

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5
Q

when do prototypes fail us (3 examples)

A
  1. When examples stretch our definitions (stool vs. chair)
  2. When the boundary between concepts is fuzzy (categorizing a colour when it is between blue and green)
  3. When examples contradict our prototypes (a whale is a mammal)
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6
Q

Four problem solving strategies

A
  1. Trial and Error
  2. Algorithms
  3. Heuristics
  4. Insight
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7
Q

Algorithm

A

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a problem

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8
Q

Heuristic

A

using a mental shortcut to reduce the number of solutions
our natural resort

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9
Q

advantages and disadvantages of heuristics and algorithms

A

algorithms = slow but correct (not best strategy if you’re limited in time)
heuristics = faster but more error prone

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10
Q

insight

A

a sudden, often novel, realization of a solution. The “aha” moment. Not really a strategy at all

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11
Q

Confirmation bias

A

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence —> once people form a belief they prefer the belief-confirming information

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12
Q

why did people choose to both deny and award custody to Parent B?

A

When it comes to approval —> focus on positives
when it comes to denial —> focus on negatives

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13
Q

Fixation

A

the inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective

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14
Q

two types of fixation

A
  1. Mental set
  2. Impose constraints
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15
Q

Mental set

A

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
-predisposes how we think

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16
Q

Impose contraints

A

the tendency to assume that there are extra constraints in a task

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17
Q

Goal of judgement and decision making

A

to understand the way people draw conclusions about their environment and make choices when given options

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18
Q

intuition

A

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

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19
Q

Representativeness Heuristic

A

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent or match particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

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20
Q

Availability heuristic

A

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness) we presume such events are common
can distort our judgements of people

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21
Q

Framing

A

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements
- draws our attention to some aspects of the available information over others

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22
Q

Framing when it comes to gains and losses

A

gains = we prefer certain options
losses = we prefer uncertain options

23
Q

how framing research can help inform decision making examples

A

preferred portion size (Supersize vs. hald portion)
organ donor (opt in vs. opt out)

24
Q

anchoring

A

we dont really know what things are worth so we use anchors to help us make decisions

25
Q

how do heuristics and biases affect our reasonging and decision making

A

we often fail to adequately take the initial likelihood of an outcome into account

26
Q

Language

A

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

27
Q

phonemes

A

smallest distinctive sound units in a language

28
Q

morphemes

A

smallest language units that carry meaning
some morphemes are also phenomes

29
Q

grammar

A

a system of rules that enables us to communicate with one another

30
Q

semantics

A

deriving meaning from sounds

31
Q

syntax

A

ordering words into sentences

32
Q

linguistic determinism

A

language determines the way we think (Whorf)

33
Q

Metaphor

A

using language to talk about another non-literally

34
Q

receptive language

A

infant ability to understand what is said to them around 4 months

35
Q

productive language

A

infant ability to produce words begin around 10 monts

36
Q

babbling stage

A

4 months, various sounds at first unrelated to household language
10 months resembles household language

37
Q

one word stage

A

age 1-2, child speaks in single words

38
Q

two word stage

A

age 2, child speaks in two word statements

39
Q

telegraphic speech

A

child speaks like a telegram using mostly nouns and verbs

40
Q

universal grammar

A

chomsky = all languages share basic elements called universal grammar, theorized humans are born with predisposition to learn grammar rule

41
Q

creativity

A

the ability to produce new and valuable ideas

42
Q

covergent thinking

A

narrowing down the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

43
Q

divergent thinking

A

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions

44
Q

belief perseverance

A

clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis of which they were formed has been discredited
- once beliefs form and get justified, it takes more compelling evidence to change them than it did to create them

45
Q

four reasons we fear the wrong things

A
  1. ancestral fears
  2. fear what we can’t control
  3. fear what is immediate
  4. availability heuristic -what is most available in memory
46
Q

ancestral fears

A

snakes, lizards, spiders, confinement, heights

47
Q

fear what we cannot control

A

we control driving, we cannot control flying

48
Q

immediate fears

A

flying is telescopes into moments of takeoff and landing while the dangers of driving is diffused across many moments to come

49
Q

most available fears

A

vivid images feed our judgement of risks (shark attack vs. heart disease)
- the news and our memorable experiences can make us disproportionately fearful of infinitesimal risks

50
Q

aphasia

A

the impairment of language

51
Q

broca’s area

A

controls language expression
- directs muscle movements involved in speech

52
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

controls language reception

53
Q

aphasia to broca’s area

A

impaired speaking

54
Q

aphasia to wernicke’s area

A

impairing understanding

Psyc 100A (6 decks)

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