Chapter 9 Flashcards
Learning
A relatively permanent change in an employee’s knowledge or skill that results from experience.
Decision making
The process of generating and choosing from a set of alternatives to solve a problem.
- The more knowledge and skills employees possess, the more likely they are to make accurate decisions.
Expertise
The knowledge and skills that distinguish experts from novices.
Explicit knowledge
Knowledge that is easily communicated and available to everyone. (if you can put it in a manual or write it down, it’s likely an example of explicit knowledge).
Tacit knowledge
Knowledge that employees can only learn through experience. (not easily communicated but could be the most important aspect of what we learn in organizations).
Operant conditioning process
Antecedent (Condition that precedes behaviour. Ex. Manager sets specific and difficult goal) –> Behaviour (Action performed by employee. Ex. Employee meets assigned goal.) –> Consequence (Result that occurs after behaviour. Ex. Employee receives a bonus)
Contingencies of reinforcement
Four specific consequences used by organizations to modify employee behaviour.
Positive reinforcement
Occurs when a positive outcome follows a desired behaviour.
- Employees must see a direct link between their behaviours and desired outcomes
Negative reinforcement
Occurs when an unwanted outcome is removed following a desired behaviour.
- Doing something to avoid getting yelled at or a manager removing unliked tasks from and employee’s workload because the employee performs well in another aspect of the job.
Punishment
Occurs when an unwanted outcome follows an unwanted outcome.
- Employees are given something they don’t like as a result of performing behaviours that the organization doesn’t like.
Extinction
Occurs when there is the removal of a positive consequence following an unwanted behaviour.
- Ex. employees receive attention from co-workers when they act in ways that are somewhat childish at work. Finding a way to remove the attention
- Can be purposeful or accidental
- Positive reinforcement and extinction should be the most common forms of reinforcement used to create learning.
Schedules of reinforcement
The timing of when contingencies are applied or removed.
Continuous reinforcement
A schedule of reinforcement in which a specific consequence follows each and every occurrence of a certain behaviours.
- Difficult to maintain.
- Not long lasting. Once consequence stops so does desired behaviour.
- Potential level of performance is high
Fixed-interval schedule
A schedule whereby reinforcement occurs as fixed time periods.
- Most common form
- Potential level of performance is average
- Ex. paycheque
Variable-interval schedule
A schedule whereby reinforcement occurs at random periods of time.
- Potential level of performance is moderately high
Fixed-ratio schedule
A schedule whereby reinforcement occurs following a fixed number of desired behaviours.
- Potential level of performance is high.
Ex. Piece-rate pay.
Variable-ratio schedule
A schedule whereby behaviours are reinforced after a varying number of them have been exhibited.
- Potential level of performance is very high.
- Ex. Commission pay.
Social learning theory
Argues that in addition to learning through reinforcement, people in organizations have the ability to learn through the observation of others.
Behavioural modeling
Employees observing the actions of others, learning from what they observe, and then repeating the observed behaviour.
Learning orientation
Building competence is deemed more important than demonstrating competence.
Performance-oriented people
These people tend to work mainly on tasks that they are good at.
* Performance-prove orientation – demonstrating competence so that others think favourably of them.
* Performance-avoid orientation - demonstrating competence so that others will not think poorly of them.
Programmed decisions
Decisions that are somewhat automatic because the decision maker’s knowledge allows them to recognize the situation and the course of action to be taken.
Nonprogrammed decisions
Decisions made by employees when a problem is new, complex, or not recognized.
Rational decision-making model
A step-by-step approach to making decisions that is designed to maximize outcomes by examining all available alternatives. Steps include:
1. Identify the criteria that are important in making the decision, taking into account all involved parties.
2. Generate a list of all available alternatives that might be potential solutions to the problem.
3. Evaluation of the alternatives against the criteria laid out in step 1
4. Select the alternative that results in the best outcome.
5. Implement the alternative.
This model has numerous problems.
Bounded rationality
The notion that people do not have the ability or resources to process all available information and alternatives when making a decision.
Satisficing
Occurs when decision makers select the first acceptable alternative considered.
Selective perception
The tendency for people to see their environment only as it affects them and as it is consistent with their expectations.
Projection bias
The faulty perception by decision makers that others think, feel and act as they do.
Social identity theory
A theory that people identify themselves according to the various groups to which they belong and judge others according to the groups they associate with.
Stereotype
Assumptions made about others based on their social group membership.
Heuristics
Simple, efficient rules of thumb that allow us to make decisions more easily.
Availability bias
The tendency for people to base their judgements on information that is easier to recall.
Anchoring
The tendency to rely too heavily, or “anchor”, on one trait or piece of info when making decisions, even when the anchor might be unreliable or irrelevant.
Framing
The tendency to make different decisions on the basis of how a question or situation is phrased.
Representativeness
The tendency to assess the likelihood of an event by comparing it to a similar event and assuming it will be similar.
Contrast
The tendency to judge things erroneously based on a reference that is near to them.
Recency
The tendency to weigh recent events more than earlier events.
Ratio effect
The tendency to judge the same probability of an unlikely event as lower when the probability is presented in the form of a ratio of smaller rather than of larger numbers.
Fundamental attribution error
The tendency for people to judge others’ behaviours as being due to internal factors such as ability, motivation, or attitudes.
Self-serving bias
Occurs when we attribute our own failures to external factors and our own successes to internal factors.
Escalation of commitment
A common decision-making error, in which the decision maker continues to follow a failing course of action.
Relationship between learning and job performance and organizational commitment.
Learning has a moderate positive effect on job performance.
Learning has a weak positive effect on organizational commitment.
