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Psychology 201: Exam 3 > Chapter 9 > Flashcards

Chapter 9 Flashcards

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1
Q

Development

A

The pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs throughout life, involving both growth and decline.

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2
Q

What are the three different levels of change?

A

Physical processes, cognitive process, and socioemotional processes.

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3
Q

Physical processes

A

Involves changes in an individual’s biological nature. Genes inherited from parents; the hormonal changes of puberty and menopause; and these reflect the development role of biological processes. Such biological growth processes are called maturation.

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4
Q

Cognitive processes

A

Involve changes in an individual’s thought, intelligence, and language. Observing a colorful mobile as it swings above a crib, constructing a sentence about the future, imagining oneself as a movie star, memorizing a new telephone number.

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5
Q

Socioemotional processes

A

Involve changes in an individual’s relationship with other people, in emotions, and in personality. An infant’s smile in response to her mother’s touch, a girl’s development of assertiveness, an adolescent’s joy at the senior prom, a young man’s aggressiveness in sport, and an older couple’s affection for each other.

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6
Q

Cross sectional studies

A

A number of people of different ages are assessed at one point in time, and differences are notes.

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7
Q

What is the problem with cross sectional studies?

A

The cohort effect which is differences between individuals that stem not from their ages but from the historical and social time period in which they were born and developed. Ex: people born in 1940s more likely to not have attended college compared to people born in 1990s.

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8
Q

Longitudinal study

A

Assesses the same participants multiple time over a lengthy period. Comparing you to yourself for several years. Ex: the nun study for over 50 years because they kept dairies about their happiness.

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9
Q

Nature

A

An individual’s biological inheritance especially his or her genes.

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10
Q

Nuture

A

An individual’s environment and social experiences. (Everything not internal) Ex: classical conditioning

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11
Q

Does the idea of nature vs. nurture mean that we are powerless in the whole thing?

A

No, individuals take active roles in their own development. (Active vs. passive)

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12
Q

Which is more important in determining who you are, your early experiences or later experiences?

A

Both!!! Lots of focus and research on childhood experiences but more needed on adult research.

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13
Q

Resilience

A

A person’s ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times. Resilient kids can overcome unfortunate childhood experiences to become successful adults.

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14
Q

When do we start studying human development?

A

Prenatal development

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15
Q

What are the three periods of prenatal development?

A

Germinal period, embryonic period, and fetal period

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16
Q

Germinal period

A

Weeks 1 and 2. The germinal period begins with conception (fertilization and formation of zygote). After 1 week and many cells’ divisions, the zygote is made up of 100 to 150 cells. By the end of 2 weeks, the mass of cells has attached to the uterine wall.

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17
Q

Embryonic period

A

Week 3 through 8. The rate of cell differentiation intensifies support systems for the cells develop, and the beginnings of organs appear. In the third week, the neural tube, which eventually becomes the spinal cord, starts to take shape (it becomes encased inside the embryo). By the end of the embryonic period a heartbeat is detectable from chemicals, but the heart is not fully functioning yet.

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18
Q

Fetal period

A

Months 2 through 9. At the start, the fetus is the size of a kidney bean. Throughout several months, the orangs finish development, and they start to function. The last three months is when the fetus puts on considerable weight and size.

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19
Q

Teratogens

A

Any agent that causes a birth defect. Ex: FAS (fetal alcohol syndrome), nicotine, chemicals (mercury), and diseases (AIDS/STIs)

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20
Q

What are the factors that cause the effects of teratogens?

A
  1. Timing of exposure (the body part or organ systems that is developing during encounter is most vulnerable)
  2. Genetics
  3. Postnatal environment (resources provided can influence later outcomes.)
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21
Q

Preterm infant

A

One who is born prior to 37 weeks after conception, may be at risk for developmental difficulties.

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22
Q

Reflexes

A

Genetically wired behaviors. Ex: suck and swallow. Drop them in water they will hold their breath and float. Some persist coughing, blinking, yawning. Some disappear: Rooting, grasping. Other ex: toe curling, moro or startle, galant

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23
Q

What are the ideas about perceptual/ motor development?

A

Baby heads are enormous, and it takes them time to get it under control. During the first year, they grow very quick and are able to learn to crawl, walk, and grasp things (this is very complex act for babies= sippy cups).

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24
Q

How do researchers study babies since they cannot talk?

A

They use preferential looking because they know that attention is predictable (babies will look at something new).

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25
Q

Preferential looking

A

A research technique that involves giving an infant a choice of what object to look at.

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26
Q

What is the idea of brain development in babies?

A

100 billion neurons have been created but there are minimal connections. Then synaptic connections increase dramatically; then after age 2, pruning happens. Myelination begins prenatally, continues into adolescence and young adulthood. Brain mass increases dramatically. Some areas double in size, then decreases due to pruning. From 3-6 years, most growth is in frontal areas.

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27
Q

What was Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?

A

Children actively construct their cognitive world as they go through a series of stages. In his views, they use schemas (a mental concept or framework that organizes and provides a structure for interpreting information). Ex: early schema is sucking and then they learn the schemas of licking, blowing, and crawling

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28
Q

What, in Piaget’s idea, developed schemas?

A

Assimilation and accomadation

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29
Q

Assimilation

A

An individual’s incorporation of new information into existing knowledge. When faced with a new experience, apply old ways of doing things. Ex: infants put everything in their mouths to see if its food (marble/toys)

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30
Q

Accommodation

A

An individual’s adjustment of his or her schemas to new information. Same gym routine, mix it up and add new component.

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31
Q

What are the four stages in understanding the world in childhood according to Piaget?

A

Sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, and formal operational stage.

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32
Q

Sensorimotor stage

A

Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development, lasting from birth to about 2 years of age, during which infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with motor (physical actions). Progresses from symbolic thinking (waving=hello). They coordinate sensations with movements. Adat to/ explore the environment, develop object permanence.

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33
Q

Object permanence

A

Piaget’s term for the crucial accomplishment of understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched. This is why peak a boo works. Children do not have this at the start of sensorimotor stage.

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34
Q

Operations

A

Piaget’s term for mental representations of changes in objects that can be reversed.

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35
Q

Preoperational stage

A

Piaget’s second stage, lasting 2 to 7 years of age, during which thought is more symbolic than sensorimotor thought. (The two identical beakers and then changes one to same amount of water but different height beaker). Marked by use of symbolic representation (language/ gestures). Experience the world egocentrically. Do not grasp conversation (display centration)

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36
Q

Egocentrically

A

Children are unable to think outside of themselves. They cannot place themselves in other shoes. (3 mountains task)

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37
Q

Concrete Operations

A

Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development, lasting from about 7 to 11 years of age, during which the individual uses operations and replaces intuitive reasoning with logical reasoning in concrete situations. Replace intuitive reasoning with logic in concrete situations. They no longer think egocentrically, thinking is concrete but no abstract thought. Can classify objects.

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38
Q

Formal Operations

A

Piaget’s fourth stage of cognitive development, which begins at 11 to 15 years of age and continues through the adult years; it features thinking about things that are not concrete, making predictions, and using logic to come up with hypotheses about the future. Capable of abstract and idealistic thought. Hypothetical deductive reasoning (develop hypotheses about how to solve a problem/ systematically come to conclusion.

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39
Q

What were some problems with Piaget’s ideas?

A

He overestimated the hypothetical/ deductive thinking of adolescents and adults. He also underestimated the cognitive capabilities of young children.

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40
Q

What is the nativist approach to infant cognition?

A

Infants have primative expectanties about events and objects in the world that are less dependent upon expeirence than Piaget imagined. Ex: 3-month-old infant expecting the puppet to appear on the opposite side of the stage.

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41
Q

What is the empiricist approach?

A

Emphasizes the role of experience in the world as the central driver of cognitive and perceptual development.

42
Q

Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive theory

A

Thought of children as apprentice thinkers who develop as they interact in dialogue with more knowledgeable others, such as parents and teachers. Parents and teachers guide children into a level of cognitive sophistication and also important aspects of culture such as language and customs. A child is not simply learning to think about the world- he or she is learning to think about his or her own world.

43
Q

Information-processing theory

A

Focuses on how individuals encode information, manipulate it, monitor it, and create strategies for handling it. Focuses on specific cognitive processes such as memory. A particularly important aspect of cognitive development in childhood is executive function (know definition for executive function) (managing thoughts to engage in goal directed behavior and excursive self-control).

44
Q

Temperament

A

An individual’s behavioral style and characteristic ways of responding.

45
Q

What are the three clusters of temperament

A

Easy child, difficult child, slow-to-warm-up child.

46
Q

Easy child

A

Generally, is in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, and easily adapts to new experiences.

47
Q

Difficult Child

A

Tends to react negatively and to cry frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept new experiences.

48
Q

Slow-to-warm-up child

A

Has a low activity level, is somewhat negatives, is inflexible, and is very cautious in the face of new experiences.

49
Q

What are other perspectives of temperament?

A

Effortful control/self-regulation (controlling arousal and not being easily agitated), inhibition (being shy and showing distress in an unfamiliar situation), and positive and negative affectivity (tending to be happy and even tempered or frustrated and sad).

50
Q

Infant attachment

A

The close emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver.

51
Q

What was John Bowlby’s beliefs?

A

Bowlby thought infants are born with ability to elicit care. First attachment relationship provides schema for sense of self and social world.

52
Q

What was Mary-Ainsworth Strange situation?

A

She had a mom and baby in a room playing with toys. Then the mom would leave, and stranger would enter and play. Stranger attempts to console. Believed that attachments usually happen between 8-9 months.

53
Q

Secure attachment

A

The ways that infants use their caregiver, usually their mother, as a secure base from which to explore the environment. When mom leaves, the infant becomes upset but then calms down and is happy when the mom returns.

54
Q

Insecure Attachment

A

Infants do not use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore; instead, they experience their relationship with the caregiver as unstable and unreliable. The two types of insecure attachment are avoidant and anxious/ ambivalent attachment.

55
Q

Avoidant attachment

A

Not visibly upset when mom leaves, may ignore her upon return.

56
Q

Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment

A

Upset when mom leaves, upset/angry upon return

57
Q

What does the attachment types not account for?

A

Culture variations (some show strong infant attachments to many people), temperament play (some babies are simply more difficult than others), and the acknowledgement that caregivers and infants likely share genetic characteristics (The attachment relationship might be a product of these shared genes.)

58
Q

Socioemotional development

A

Created by Erik Erikson. He proposed eight stages of development across the lifespan (four in childhood, four in adolescence/adulthood). Each stage includes a “crisis” that must be resolves, the outcome is either personal competence or weakness. It describes how people develop in terms of their interpersonal relationships.

59
Q

Trust versus mistrust

A

(0-1.5 years old) Basic needs (food, comfort, warmth) are met by responsive, sensitive caregivers. At this stage, the helpless infant depends on caregivers to establish a sense that the world is a predictable and friendly place. Once trust is established, toddlers begin to see themselves as independent agents in the world.

60
Q

Autonomy versus shame and doubt

A

(1.5-3 years old) discover and assert will of their own. They can either develop a positive sense of independence and autonomy or negative feelings of shame and doubt. They are likely to develop a strong sense of independence in seeking autonomy. They say “no!” meaning “I can do it myself!”

61
Q

Initiative versus guilt

A

(3-5 years old) Challenged to assume more responsibility. In preschool, want to help the adults and when they experience a sense of responsibility, they gain initiative. Otherwise, they feel guilty or anxious.

62
Q

Industry versus inferiority

A

(6- puberty) Mastering knowledge and intellectual skills. They learn the value of industry (gaining competence in academic skills and acquiring the ability to engage in self-discipline and hard work.

63
Q

What were the evaluations on Erikson’s theory?

A

It is based on case-studies, not systematic empiricism. Also, it is focused on one task, but ignores other important tasks people have to handle at each stage. Ex: In intimacy vs. isolation people are also searching for careers and work not just love.

64
Q

Authoritarian parenting

A

Parents are controlling and punitive. Correlated with child’s lack of initiative, poor communication skills, and social incompetence.

65
Q

Authoritative parenting

A

Parents encourage independence with limits. Correlated with child’s social competence, social responsibility, and self-reliance

66
Q

Neglectful parenting

A

Parents generally uninvolved. Correlated with less social competence and poor self-control in child.

67
Q

Permissive parenting

A

Parents are involved but place few limits. Correlated with child’s poor social competence, lack of respect for others, and poor self-control

68
Q

What did Kohlberg do?

A

Presented moral dilemmas and analyzed responses. The Heinz situation of stealing a drug in order to save his wife’s life. Created three general levels of moral development: preconvention, conventional, postconventional.

69
Q

Preconventional

A

Behavior guided by punishments and rewards. Reasoning is guided by not wanting Heinz to go to jail or concern for the druggists’ profits.

70
Q

Conventional

A

Standards that are learned from parents and society. Heinz should act in accord with expectations or his role as a good husband or reason that Heinz should follow the law no matter what.

71
Q

Post conventional

A

Contracts, rights, abstract principles. The person might reason that saving Heinz’s wife is more important than the law.

72
Q

What are the problems with Kohlberg’s ideas?

A

Moral reasoning is not the same as moral behavior (we know what is right, but do we do that), misses gender related reasoning (justice perspective vs care perspective), culture (individualistic vs. collectivistic), overestimates the role of logical reasoning in moral judgments at the cost of the influence of emotion and intuition.

73
Q

Justice perspective

A

Focuses on the rights of the individual as the key to sound moral reasoning. Individualistic are more inclined to this.

74
Q

Care perspective

A

Carol Gilligan’s approach, views people in terms of their connectedness with others and emphasizes interpersonal communication, relationships, and concern for others. Collectivistic inclined to this.

75
Q

Adolescence

A

Begins around age 10-12 and ends around 18-21. transition from childhood to adulthood.

76
Q

Idea of puberty in physical development of adolescence

A

A period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation that occurs mainly in early adolescence.

77
Q

Ideas of testosterone (androgen) in adolescence boys

A

androgen: The class of sex hormones that predominate in males, produced by the testes in males and by the adrenal glands in both males and females. Causes genital development, height, voice change.

78
Q

Ideas of estradiol (estrogen) in adolescence girls

A

Estrogen: the class of sex hormones that predominate in females, produced mainly by the ovaries. Causes increase in breasts, uterine, and skeletal development.

79
Q

Adolescence brain development

A

Early development of amygdala which involves emotions and later development of the prefrontal cortex which is concerned with reasoning and decision making. They lack the skills to control their impulses effectively which may account for increased risk taking and other problems.

80
Q

Adolescent Egocentrism

A

The belief that others are preoccupied with the adolescent as he or she is (everyone sees their pimple). Gives them a sense of uniqueness and a sense of invincibility which can cause risky behaviors.

81
Q

What is one of Erik’s most important contributions in adolescences in his socioemotional development?

A

Identity versus identity confusion (the individual either withdraws, becoming isolated from peers and family, or the person loses himself or herself in the crowd.

82
Q

What are Marcia’s four identity statuses?

A

Identity diffusion: no exploration or commitment
Identity Foreclosure: commitment without exploration
Identity moratorium: exploration without commitment
Identity achievement: commitment after exploration
Commitment involves making a decision about which identity path to follow and making a personal investment in attaining that identity.

83
Q

What is Adolescence ethnic identity?

A

Attachment to one’s minority group, attachment to larger culture, and biculturalism (identifying in some ways with their ethnic minority group and in other ways with the majority culture.

84
Q

What are the influences on parenting and peers on adolescences?

A

Parent as manager/counselor/monitor. They need to balance involvement and allowing to explore. Peer relations are very important in adolescence (some can be good relationships and negative relationships.

85
Q

What are the five key features of emerging adulthood?

A
  1. Identity exploration in love, work, and worldview
  2. Instability (residential changes peak during emerging adulthood, a time during which there also is often instability in love, work, and education).
  3. Self-focus
  4. Feeling “in between” adolescence and full adults
  5. Age of possibilities, a time when individuals have an opportunity to transform their life (many are optimistic about their future, and for emerging adults who have experienced difficult times while growing up, emerging adulthood presents an opportunity to guide their lives in a positive direction.
86
Q

What are the physical development in early adulthood (20s and 30s)

A

Peak of physical development. This is when many physical skills begin to decline. Strength and speed decline is noticeable in 30s.

87
Q

What are the physical development in middle adulthood (40s and 50s)?

A

Skin begins to wrinkle and sag. Most lose height, mainly gain height. Menopause for women (late 40s or early 50s). Estrogen decline can produce uncomfortable symptoms such as hot flashes. Hair becomes thinner and grayer.

88
Q

What are the physical development in late adulthood?

A

Accumulated wear and tear. Less ability to repair and regenerate. Healthier diet and regular exercise can help to slow the effects of age.

89
Q

Selective optimization with compensation

A

Older adults match their goals with their current abilities and compensate for declines by finding other ways to do the things they enjoy. Ex: Island of Okinawa has oldest people in the nation.

90
Q

Cellular-Clock Theory

A

Leonard Hayflick’s theory that cells can divide a maximum of about 100 times and that, as we age, our cells become less capable of dividing. Predicts limit to human life span at 120 years. This is from the idea of shortening of telomeres over time.

91
Q

Free-Radical Theory

A

Free radicals are unstable oxygen molecules. These molecules damage DNA and other cellular structures. But are also used by the body to attack bacteria.

92
Q

Hormonal Stress Theory

A

Argues that aging in the body’s hormonal system can lower resistance to stress and increase the likelihood of decrease. Hormones stimulated by stress stay in bloodstream longer as we age. Linked to increased risk of diseases.

93
Q

What are the ideas around the aging brain?

A

Some new brain cells grow in hippocampus and olfactory bulb. Surviving/ healthy neurons pick up slack for their deceased/ disabled neighbors. Reduced lateralization of brain function; both hemispheres are used more equally. (May be a compensation for older adults)

94
Q

What is the cognitive development during early adulthood?

A

Idealism gives way to realistic pragmatism. Increasing complexity of culture requires people to examine their own worldview and understand that diverse worldviews should be acknowledged.

95
Q

What is the cognitive development during middle adulthood?

A

Some research suggests that this period is one’s cognitive peak. Many abilities increase, some decline.

96
Q

What is the cognitive development during late adulthood?

A

Speed of processing generally decreases. Memory retrieval skills decline (working memory too); but memory for world knowledge sometimes increases. Wisdom increases in some individuals. Strategy training and physical activity can improve cognitive function.

97
Q

Wisdom

A

Wisdom is expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life

98
Q

What are Erikson’s last three stages that occur during adulthood?

A

Intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus stagnation, and integrity versus despair.

99
Q

Intimacy versus isolation

A

Individuals form intimate relationships with others or become socially isolated. In the last few decades, women and men have married later.

100
Q

What are the principles for successful marriages?

A
  1. Nurturing fondness and admiration
  2. Turning toward each other as friends
  3. Giving up some power
  4. Solving conflicts together
101
Q

Generativity versus stagnation

A

Generativity means making a contribution to the next generation. Wellness through contribution to next generation (through rearing children. Research shows that Parenting can be a rich/rewarding but inhibiting frustration with a stubborn child can reduce emotional well-being.

102
Q

Integrity versus despair

A

Porocess of life review and reminiscence, the older adult comes to a sense of meaning or despair. What have I done with my life? Wellness through reminiscence. Seeking meaning through life review. Confronting own pending death, importance of important meaning; past and present. More selective about social network.

Psychology 201: Exam 3 (3 decks)

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