Chapter 8_ Thinking, Reasoning, and Language Flashcards
What is problem solving?
The mental process of finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available.
What 2 points does the problem solving process rely on?
- How it is represented in the mind 2. Changing the representation
What is insight?
A sudden knowledge of the solution to a problem
What is functional fixedness and its issue?
The tendency to only think of the usual function of objects. Individuals fail to look at a problem from a fresh new perspective
What is a mental set?
When an individual becomes stuck in a specific problem-solving strategy
What is a heuristic?
a mental shortcut to solve a problem but does not guarantee a correct solution. EX: rounding numbers
What is an algorithm?
a procedure that will always yield the solution to a problem if it is followed exactly. EX: Area = length x width
What is the means-ends analysis (subgoals) method of solving problems?
Minor problems are solved to put the individual in a better position for reaching the final goal or solution.
What is the working backwards method of solving problems?
Starting at the goal and moving backwards toward the starting point. EX: You lose your phone and trace back to when you last had it.
What is decision making and how is it different from problem solving?
Decision making means choosing from among a set of alternatives, while problem solving involves coming up with a solution instead of choosing.
What is the framing effect?
Decisions are biased by the way the decision is presented.
What is confirmation bias?
Seeking information that confirms your existing beliefs.
What is the representativeness heuristic?
Judging the probability of an event based on a pattern of previous experiences or beliefs about that event, or stereotypes
What is the availability heuristic?
Events with easily remembered examples are seen to be more probable than harder to remember examples. EX: After winning 10 games with your Smash Ultimate main, you start believing that this character always guarantees a win.
What is the conjunction error?
Wrong belief that two or more events are more likely than one. EX: You learn that someone is a soccer player who practices every day. When asked which is more likely: They are a soccer player. They are a soccer player and the captain of the school soccer team. You choose option 2 because his dedication and skill match the image of a team captain, even though it is statistically more likely that Sam is just a soccer player.
Why are humans bad at decison making?
Gigerenzer’s “fast and frugal” hypothesis: heuristics allow quick decisions with minimal energy
What two scenarios explain how we think about probability?
- insensitivity to sample size: we fail to consider the reliability of results, failing to understand that small samples are more likely to produce extremes (outliers).
- non-regressive judgment: we incorrectly assign causal explanations (e.g., pressure, bad luck) to events that can simply be explained by regression to the mean.
What is regression to the mean in probability?
Tendency for extremely low or high scores to be followed by scores that are closer to the mean
How long does babble and vocabulary spurt last in an infant’s language development?
Babble: 6 months to about 18 months
Vocabulary spurt: 16-24 months. 10,000 words by gr 1 to 40,000 by gr 5. Many words are learned after just hearing them once.
What is a metalinguistic awareness?
The ability to reflect on the nature of language during middle childhood.
What is extralinguistic information?
during middle childhood. The ability to understand non-verbal language (body language)
What are pragmatics?
Set of rules concerning social rules of language. EX: “do not interrupt another speaker”
What is overextension in language development?
Using a word to describe a wider set of objects or actions than it is meant to. EX: using “ball” for anything round (oranges, apples, the moon, etc.)
What is underextension in language development?
Using a word to describe a narrower set of objects or actions than it is meant to. EX: using “dog” only for the child’s own dog.
What is telegraphic speech?
Less critical words are omitted. EX: Infants may speak with more content words to make statements like “give food,” or “want play.”
What is overregularization?
Grammatical rules incorrectly generalized to irregular cases where they don’t apply. EX: I brang it to school
What is linguistic determinism?
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis called linguistic determinism says thinking is what gives you evergy
What is the linguistic relativism?
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis that says that language affects thought. This has been proven as framing can affect episodic memory.
What are the 2 main ways of thinking about where things are in space?
1) egocentric perspective: position of an object, landmark, etc., is relative to me – “left”, “right”, “front”, “back”
2) allocentric perspective: position of an object, landmark, etc., is relative to another object or landmark
What 2 points challenge the view that we can “nurture” view of language?
1) learning does not account for generativity (behaviour to protect the well-being of future generations)
2) infants are aware of syntax (“rules of language”) when they start speaking
What is the nativist view of language?
infants “come into the world with some basic knowledge of how language works.”
